oMb'^    MtfunabooK  • 

A  HAND-BOOK 


OF 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 


FOE   THE   USE   OF 


STUDENTS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITIES  AND 
HIGHER  CLASSES  OF  SCHOOLS. 


R.  G.  LATHAM,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE,  UNIVERSITY 
COLLEGE,   LONDON. 


NEW-YORK: 
D.   APPLETON    &    COMPANY, 


200  BKOADWAY. 
1852. 


PUBLISHERS'  NOTICE. 


In  1840,  Dr.  Latham  published  the  first  edition  of  his 
"  English  Language."  Not  satisfied  with  the  favor  with 
which  the  public  received  the  work,  he  continued  his 
labors  so  assiduously  in  the  department  which  he  had 
chosen,  that  the  second  edition  published  in  1848,  was 
almost  entirely  rewritten.  The  third,  published  in  1850, 
was  likewise  revised  and  greatly  enlarged,  in  the  light  of 
the  constantly  advancing  investigations  of  the  cultivators  of 
general  as  well  as  English  Philology.  Immediately  after 
the  publication  of  the  third  edition  of  his  great  work,  he 
commenced  the  preparation  of  the  compendious  treatise 
now  given  to  the  American  public.  It  contains  the  entire 
results  which  have  been  arrived  at  in  his  larger  treatises, 
accompanied  with  sufficient  discussion  and  detail  to  enable 
the  student  to  avail  himself  of  the  author's  method  and 
sources  of  investigation,  without  bewildering  his  mind  by 
reasonings  which  those  only,  who  are  somewhat  familiar 
with  Comparative  Philology,  are  able  to  follow.  Dr.  La- 
tham now  takes  rank  among  the  ablest  Ethnologists  of 


the  age,  and  few  have  been  more  successful  in  unravelling 
the  difficulties  that  involve  the  origin  and  formation  of  the 
English  tongue,  in  its  connection  with  our  early  history 
as  a  people.  He  has  brought  the  labors  of  all  who  have 
written  upon  the  various  ramifications  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean languages,  to  bear  upon  the  elucidation  of  our  mother 
tongue,  with  an  acuteness  of  criticism  and  a  breadth  of 
view  that  distances  all  his  predecessors  or  contemporaries 
in  the  same  field.  It  is  believed  that  there  is  no  work 
before  the  American  public,  so  well  calculated  as  this,  to 
ground  the  Students  of  our  colleges  and  schools  in  the 
higher  criticism  of  our  language.  The  clear  and  decided 
testimony  which  some  of  the  most  competent  scholars  in 
England  and  America  have  given  to  the  value  of  Dr.  La- 
tnam's  labors,  and  the  conviction  that  this  work  will  meet  a 
necessity  which  enterprising  teachers  have  long  felt,  have 
induced  the  publishers  to  offer  it  to  the  public,  in  the  full 
conviction  that  it  needs  only  to  be  known,  to  be  widely 
used  and  appreciated  in  American  colleges  and  schools. 

NEW- YORK,  February,  1852. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

GENERAL  ETHNOLOGICAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 
CHAPTER  I. 

GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. DATE. 

SECTION.  PAGE 

1.  English  language  not  British         .                 .                 .  .1 

2.  Real  origin  German               ....  1 

3.  Accredited  immigrations  and  settlements      .                 .  .2 

4.  6.  Criticism            .                 .                 .                 .  4, 5 

CHAPTER  II. 

GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. THE  GERMANIC  AREA  OF  THE 

PARTICULAR  GERMANS  WHO  INTRODUCED  IT. EXTRACT  FROM  BEDA. 

6,  7.  Jutes,  Angles,  and  Saxons      .                .  .                .6 

8, 9.  Extract  from  Beda          .                 .                 .  .               6, 7 

10—13.  Criticism  .....  8—11 

14,  15.  Angles           .                 .                 .                 .  .           11,  12 

16.  Saxons  of  Beda          .                .                .  .                .  12,  13 

17.  Anglo-Saxon  area                ...  13 

18.  19.  The  Frisians          .                 .                 .  .                 .  13,  14 
20.  Anglo-Saxon  area  .                              .                 .  .                 14 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III 

OF  THE   DIALECTS   OF  THE   SAXON   AREA,    AND   OF   THE   SO-CALLED 
OLD   SAXON. 

SECTION  PAGE 

21 — 29.  Old  Saxon  and  Anglo-Saxon  .  .  16,  17 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AFFINITIES   OF   THE   ENGLISH   WITH   THE   LANGUAGES   OF   GERMANY  AND 
SCANDINAVIA. 

30,  31.  Gothic  languages                               ...  18 

32—34.  Divisions  of  the  Gothic  stock                  .                 .  18 

35.  Mo3so-Gothic           .                .                 .                 .                 .  19 

36.  Old  High  German          .                 .                 .                 .  19 

37.  Low  German          .  .  .  .  .19 

38.  Frisian  and  Dutch          .                 .                 .                .  •  19 

39.  Platt-Deutech          .....  20 

40.  41.  Comparison               ....  21 — 23 

CHAPTER  V. 

ANALYSIS   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. GERMANIC   ELEMENTS. 

THE   ANGLES. 

42.  Analysis                .                 ....  24 

43 — 54.  Angles — their  relations        .                .                 .  24 — 28 

55, 56.  The  Frisians    .                .                 .                .                 .  29,  30 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   CELTIC   STOCK   OF   LANGUAGES   AND   THEIR   RELATIONS   TO   THE 
ENGLISH. 

57.  Branches  of  the  Celtic  stock                .                 .                 .  31 

58 — 60.  Structure  of  Celtic  tongues  .                 .                .  31 — 33 

61—63.  The  Picts       .  33—35 


CONTENTS.  VU 
CHAPTER  VII. 

THK   ANGLO-NORMAN,   AND   THE   LANGUAGES   OF   THE   CLASSICAL   STOCK. 

SECTION  PAGE 

64.  The  classical  languages           .                 .                 .  .36 

65—67.  Latin  branch           ....  36 — 40 

68, 69.  Norman  French                 .                 .                 .  40, 41 


PART  II. 

HISTORY    AND    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORICAL   AND    LOGICAL   ELEMENTS    OF   THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

70.  Celtic  elements       .  .  .  . .  .45 

71.  Latin  of  first  period        ....  46 

72.  Anglo-Saxon  .....  47 

73.  Danish  or  Norse  ....  47 

74.  Roman  of  second  period        .  .  .  .49 

75.  Anglo-Norman  element  ...  49 

76.  Indirect  Scandinavian  elements  .  .  .50 

77.  Latin  of  third  period      ....  51 

78.  Latin  of  fourth  period  .  .  .51 

79.  Greek  .  .52 
80—82.  Tables              .....     53—55 
83 — 90.  Miscellaneous  elements            .                 .                 .  55 — 60 
91 — 94.  Hybridism  and  new  words             .                 .                 .     60 — 62 

95.  Historical  and  logical  analysis        ...  68 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE   RELATION    OF    THE    ENGLISH   TO    THE   ANGLO-SAXON,    AND    THE 
STAGES    OF   THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

96.  Ancient  and  modern  tongues  .  .  .  64 

97.  Details  .     •  .  .  .  65—68 

98.  Stages  of  the  English  language  .  .  .68 


yiii  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  PAOB 

99.  Semi-Saxou    . 

100—103.   Old  English,  &c.  .     70—72 

104.  Present  tendencies         .  .  •  •  73 


PAKT  III. 

SOUNDS,    LETTERS,    PRONUNCIATION,    SPELLING. 

CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL    NATURE  AND    CERTAIN    PROPERTIES    OF   ARTICULATE   SOUNDS. 

105.  Spelling  and  speaking  .                 .                 .                .77 

106.  Sounds  and  syllables    ....  79 

107.  Vowels                  .  .                .                .                             79 

108.  Divisions        .                .  .                .                .                     80 

109.  Sharp  and  flat  sounds  .                 .                 .                 .80 

110.  Continuous  and  explosive  .                .                .                     80 

111.  General  statements  .                 .                 .                 .81 

112.  The  sound  of  h  .                .                .                    81 

CHAPTER  II. 

SYSTEM    OF   ARTICULATE   SOUNDS. 

113.  Certain  foreign  sounds          .  .  .  .82 

114.  System  of  mutes  .  ...  .  82 

115.  Lenes  and  aspirates  .  .  .  .83 

116.  Fourfold  character  of  mutes         ...  84 

117.  Y'and  w  .....  84 

118.  119.  Diphthongs  ....  84 

120.  Compound  sounds  .  .  .  .85 

121.  Ng  .  .  .  .  .  85 

122.  123.  Broad,  slender;  long,  short;    dependent,    independent 

vowels  .  .  .  .  .       86,  86 

124 — 126.  System  of  sounds  .  .  86,87 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


CHAPTER  III. 


OF   CERTAIN   COMBINATIONS   OF   ARTICULATE  SOUNDS. 


SECTION 

127.  Sharp  and  flat  mutes 

128.  Unstable  combinations 

129.  Effect  of  y 

180,  131.  Double  consonants  rare 
132.  True  aspirates  rare 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EUPHONY   AND   THE  PERMUTATION   OF   LETTERS. 


133.  Euphony 

134.  Permutation 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THE  FORMATION  OF  SYLLABLES. 


135.  Syllabification 


PAGE 

88 
89 
89 
89 
90 


93 


95—97 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON    QUANTITY. 


136.  Long  and  short  sounds 

137.  Quantity  of  vowels — of  syllables 

138.  Classical  and  English  measurements    . 

CHAPTER  VH. 


139.  Place  of  accents  . 
14U.  Distinctive  accents 
141.  Emphasis 


ON   ACCENT. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 


142.  Orthoepy 

143 — 146.  Principle  of  an  alphabet 

1* 


98 
98 
99 


101 
101 
102 


103 
103—105 


X  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  PAOB 

147.  Violations  of  it   .                 .                 .                .  .105 

148.  Rules            .....  107 
149_151.  Details  of  English     ....  107—109 

152.  Insufficiency                  .                 .                 .                 .  109 

153.  Inconsistency       .....  109 

154.  Erroneousness               .                 .                 .                 .  110 

155.  Redundancy        .                 .                 .                .  .             110 

156.  Unsteadiness                .                .                                 .  110 

157.  Other  defects      .                                 .  Ill 

158.  Historical  propriety    .                 .                 .                .  113 

159.  Conventional  spelling         .                 .                 .  .             113 

CHAPTER  IX. 

HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   THE   ENGLISH   ALPHABET. 

160 — 166.  Phoenician,  Greek,  Roman  stages                 .  116 — 124 

166—172.  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet          .                 .                .  124—126 

173.  Anglo-Norman  alphabet        .                 .                 ,  .126 

174.  Extract  from  Ormulum                 .                 .                .  127 

175.  Order  of  alphabet                  .                 .                 .  .128 


PART  IV. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

ON    THE   PROVINCE   OF   ETYMOLOGY. 

176 — 179.  Meaning  of  term     ....     131—133 
CHAPTER  H. 

ON   GENDER. 

180.  Boy  and  girl          .....  134 

181.  J/aw-servant  and  mazrf-servant    .  .  .  134 

182.  183.  Forms  like  genitrix       .  .  .  .135 


CONTENTS.  xi 

SECTION  PAGE 

184.  Forms  Kke  domina               .  .              136 

185 — 189.  Genders  in  English            .                 .                 .  136,  137 

190 — 192.  The  sun  in  his  glory;  the  moon  in  her  wane  .             138 

193.  Miscellaneous  forms    ....  139 — 142 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   NUMBERS. 

194 — 197.  Numbers  in  English                   .                 .  .     143,  144 

198.  Rule             .....  145 

199.  Remarks              .                 .  145 

200.  Addition  of  -es            ....  146 

Pence,  alms,  &c.                              .  147 

Mathematics          ....  147 

201.  Children               .....  149 

202.  Form  in  -en                  .                 .                 .                 .  150 

203.  Men,  feet,  <fcc.      .                 .                 .                 .  .150 

204.  Brethren,  &c.                .                .                 .                 .  150 

205.  Houses                 .                 .                .                .  .152 

206.  Wives,  <fcc.                     .                 .                 .                 .  152 

CHAPTER  IV 

ON  THE  CASES. 

207—211.  Nature  of  cases          .                .                .  .  154—156 

212.  Accusatives                  ....  156 

213.  Datives                ...  157 

214.  Genitives     .....  157 

215.  Instrumental       .....  158 

All  the  better        .                                 .  158,  159 

216.  Determination  of  cases        .                 .                 .  .159 

217.  Analysis  of  cases          .                 .                 .                 .  160 

218.  Form  in  -«                           .                .                .  .             160 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

219.  220.  I,  we,  us,  <fec.                 .                 .                 .  .             162 
221.    You  162 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  PAGE 

222.  Me    .  .  .  .  .  .  163 

223—225.  Cautions         ....  163,  164 

CHAPTER  VI. 

OX   THE   TRUE   REFLECTIVE   PROXOUX   IX    THE   GOTHIC   LAXGUAGES,  AXD    OX    ITS 
ABSEXCE   IX    EXGLISH. 

226.  How  far  found  in  English       .  .  .  .165 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    DEMOXSTRATIVE   PROXOTJXS,    ETC. 

227.  He,  she,  it  .  .                 .                 .                 166 

228.  She                            .  .  .                 .                 .166 

229.  Her,  him,  his,  its,  <fec.  .  .                 .                 .                 167 

230.  Theirs      .                .  .  .                .                .167 

231.  Table  .  .                .                 .                 .                 168 

232.  These        .                 .  .  .                 .                 .169 

233.  Those  .....  171 

CHAPTER  VHL 

THE   RELATIVE,    IXTERROGATTVE,  AXD    CERTAIX    OTHER   PROXOUXS. 

234.  Who,  what,  <fcc.  178 

235.  Same,  <tc.  .....         173 

236.  Other,  whether  ....  177 

CHAPTER  IX. 

OX    CERTAIX   FORMS   IX    -ER. 

237 — 239.  Idea  expressed  by  -er  .  .         179 — 181 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE   COMPARATIVE   DEGREE. 

240.  Form  in  -s  .  .  .  .  .         182 

241.  Elder,  <fcc.  .  .  .  .  183 

242.  Rather     ....  183 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

SECTION  PAGE 

243,  244.  Excess  of  expression        .                 .                 .  .183 

245—247.  Better      .....  183—185 

248.  Worse      .                 .                 .                 .                 .  .185 

249.  More                 .....  185 

250.  Less         .                 .                 .                 .                 .  .185 

251 — 253.  Near,  &c.                 .                 .                 .                 .  186 

254.  Origin  of  superlative               .                 .                 .  .186 

CHAPTER  XL 

THE   SUPERLATIVE   DEGREE. 

255,  256.  Former     .  .  .  .  .  188 

257.  Nearest    .  .  .  .  .  .188 

258.  Next  .  .  .  .  .  188 

259.  260.    Upmost,  &c.     .  .  .  .  189,  190 

CHAPTER  XII. 

THE   CARDINAL   NUMBERS. 

261.  How  far  undeclined  .  .  .  .191 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  ORDINAL   NUMBERS. 

262 — 264.  Seven,  nine,  ten  .  .  .  .192 

265,  266.  Thirteen,  thirty        .  .  .  .  193 

m 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE   ARTICLES. 

267.  A,  an,  the        .  . .  .  .  .  194 

CHAPTER  XV. 
DtMnrunvEs,  AUGMENTATIVES,  AND  PATRONYMICS. 

268 — 270.  Diminutives          ....         197 — 199 

271.  Augmentatives        .....         200 

272.  Patronymics        .....     200,  201 


Xiv  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

GENTILE   FORMS, 
SECTION  .  PAftE 

273.    Waleg  .....  202 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON   THE   CONNEXION-    BETWEEN    THE   NOUN   AND    VERB,    AND   ON   THE   INTLECTION 
OF   THE   INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

274 — 281.  The  verb,  how  far  a  noun        .  .  .     203 — 206 

CHAPTER  XVHL 

ON  DERIVED  VERBS. 

282.  Divisions  of  verbs  ....  207 

282,  Derivation  .....     208,  209 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

ON  THE  PERSONS. 

283,  Persons  in  English  ....  210 

284,  285.  Historical  view  .  .  .  .211 

286.  Form  in  -t  .  .  .  .  212 

287.  Thou  spakest,  &c.  .  .  .  .212 

288.  We  loves  .  .  .  .  .  213 

CHAPTER  XX. 

ON  THE   NUMBERS   OF  VERBS. 

289.  Numbers  in  English  ....         214 

290.  Ran,  run,  <fec.  .  .  .  .215 

CHAPTER  XXL 

ON   MOODS. 

291—292,  Moods  in  English   .  .  .  .  216 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

ON  TENSES  IN   GENERAL. 


SECTION 

293.  Strike,  struck 
294—296.  "ETVTTTOV,  &C. 

297.  Reduplication 

298.  Weak  or  strong 


299.  Sing,  sang,  sung 
300—303.  Tables 


PAGE 

217 

217,  218 
219 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE  STRONG  TENSES. 


222—225 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


THE   WEAK   TENSES. 


304.  Stabbed,  <fec. 

305 — 307.  Divisions 

300.  Bought,  sought 

309.  Forms  in  -te  and  -ode 

310—312.  Bred,  beat,  <fec, 

813.  Leave,  left 

314.  Made,  had 

314.  Would,  should,  could 

315.  Aught      . 

316.  Durst,  must,  Ac. 

317.  This  mil  do 

318.  Mind 

319.  Yode 

320.  Did 


226 

227,  228 
228 
229 
230 
231 
231 
231 
231 
232 
233 
234 
234 
234 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


ON  CONJUGATION. 


321,  322.  Weak  and  strong  conjugations  natural 


285—287 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

DEFEOTTVEXESS   AND   IRREGULARITY 
SECTION 

323 — 325.  Irregularity 

326.  Vital  and  obsolete  processes   . 

327.  Processes  of  necessity,  <fec. 

328.  Ordinary  processes 

329.  Positive  .... 

330.  Normal    . 

Sol.   Could  .... 

332.  Quoth      .... 

333.  Real  irregular  verbs  few 

CHAPTER  XXVH. 

THE  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

334.  335.  Me-seems,  me-listeth 

CHAPTER  XXVHL 


THE  VERB   SUBSTANTIVE. 


336.  Not  irregular 

337.  Was 
338—341.  Be  . 

342.  An 

343.  Worth 


844.  Forms  in  -ing 

845.  Forms  in  -ung 


346.  Forms  in  -en 

347,  348.  Drunken  . 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE  PRESENT  PARTICIPLE. 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE  PAST  PARTICIPLE. 


PAGE 
238 

240 
241 
241 
242 
242 
243 
244 
244 


246 


247 
247 

248,  249 
249 
250 


251 

252 


254 
254 


CONTENTS. 


XV11 


SECTION 

349.  Forlorn 

350.  Forms  in  -ed 

351.  The  prefix  Y 


255 
255 
256 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


COMPOSITION. 


352—357.  Nature  of  compounds 
358—361.  Accent  . 

362.  Obscure  compounds        . 
363—365.  Exceptions      . 

366.  Peacock,  peahern  . 

367.  Nightingale  . 

368.  Improper  compounds       . 

369.  Decomposites  . 

370.  Combinations  . 


.       258—261 

261—266 

.  266 

266,  267,  268 

.  269 

.269 

.  270 

.         270 

.         270,  271 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

ON   DERIVATION   AND   INFLECTION. 

371  —  373.  Their  nature  .  . 


272  —  275 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

ADVERBS. 


874,  375.  Their  division 
376—379.  Adverbs  of  deflection 
380.  Darkling  . 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


ON   CERTAIN    ADVERBS   OF   PLACE. 


381—384.  Hither,  thither,  <fcc. 

385.  Hence,  &c.  . 

386.  Yonder  .. 

387.  Anon       ,  . 


276 
277 

278 


279 
280 
280 
281 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

ON   WHEN,    THEN,    AND   THAN. 


388,  389.  Their  origin 


282 


XV111 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

283 
283 
283 
283 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

PREPOSITION'S   AND     CONJUNCTIONS. 
SECTION 

390.  Prepositions  .... 

391.  Conjunctions  ..... 

392.  Yes,  No  .                 .                 ... 

393.  Particles  ..... 

CHAPTER  XXXVIL 

ON   THE   GRAMMATICAL   POSITION    OF   THE   WORDS   mine   AND    thine. 


394 — 107.  Equivalent  to  meus  and   tuus,    rather   than    possessive 

284—290 


CHAPTER  XXXVHL 

ON   THE   CONSTTrunON   OF   THE   WEAK   PRETERITE. 


408.  Grimm's  view 

409,  410.  Remarks  of  Dr.  Trithen 


291 
291—293 


PART  V. 

SYNTAX. 
CHAPTER  I. 

ON    SYNTAX    IN    GENERAL. 


411,  412.  Syntax 

413.  Personification 

414.  Ellipsis 

415.  Pleonasm 

416.  Leugma 

417.  Pros  to  semainonienon 

418.  Apposition  f 

419.  Collectiveneas  . 


294 
294 
295 
295 
295 
296 
296 
297 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

SECTION  PA(JE 

420.  Reduction                .                .                .                 .  .297 

421.  Determination  of  part  of  speech      .                 .                 .  298 
422 — 424.  Convertibility                 .                 .                 .  298,  299 

425.  The  Blacks  of  Africa      .  299 

426.  None  of  your  ifs      .                 .                 .                 .  .         300 

427.  Convertible  words  numerous  in  English        .  300 

CHAPTER  II. 

SYNTAX   OF   SUBSTANTIVES. 

428.  Rundell  and  Bridge's               .                .                 .  .301 

429.  Right  and  left                  ....  301 

CHAPTER  III. 

SYNTAX   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

430.  Pleonasm                  .                 .                 .                 .  .302 

431.  Collocation       .....  302 

432.  Government                             .                 .                ,  .302 

433.  More  wise,  wiser                    .           .                 .                 .  303 

434.  Tlie  better  of  the  two  804 

435.  Syntax  of  adjectives  simple            .                .                .  304 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS. 

436.  Pleonasm          .....  305 

437.  Father's,  not  father  his           .                .                .  .305 

438.  Pleonasm  and  ellipses  allied             .                 .                .  306 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  TRUE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

439.  Pronomen  reverentice  ....         307 

440.  Dative  ethicus                 ....  307 

441.  Reflected  pronoun  ....         307 

442.  Reflected  neuters             .                .                .                .  308 

443.  Equivocal  reflective  ....         308 


XX  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VL 

ON  THE  SYNTAX  OF  THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS,  AND  THE  PRONOUNS 

OF  THE  THIRD  PERSON. 
SECTION  PAGE 

444,  445.  His  and  it*  .  .  .  310,  311 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ON   THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF  THE   WORD    Self. 

446,  447.  Myself,  himself,  Ac.  .  .  312,  313 

CHAPTER  VHL 

ON   THE   POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

448 — 451.  My  and  mine        ....         314—316 
CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

452 — 456.  Their  concord        ....         317,  318 

457.  Ellipsis  .  .  .  .318 

458.  Equivocal  antecedent      .  «.  .  t  319 

CHAPTER  X. 

ON   THE   INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUN. 

459.  460.  Direct  and  oblique  questions          .  .  ,         820 

CHAPTER  XI, 

THE    RECIPROCAL     PRONOUNS. 

461,  462.  Their  construction  .  .  .  322,  323 

CHAPTER  XII. 

THE   INDETERMINATE   PRONOUNS. 

463 — 466.  Use  of  it  .  .  .  .         324,  325 

467,  468.  Use  of  them      .  325 


SECTION 

469.  A  and  the 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  XII  I. 

THE   ARTICLES. 

CHAPTER  XTV. 

THE   NUMERALS. 


472 — 474.  Their  division 


470.  Their  numbers 

471.  First  two,  and  two  first    . 

CHAPTER  XV. 

ON    VERBS    IN    GENERAL. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   CONCORD    OF   VERBS. 

475,  476.  Rules       .... 

477.  It  is  I  your  master  who  command  (commands)  you 

478.  Concord  of  number 

479.  Subject  and  predicate  of  different  numbers 

CHAPTER  XVIL 

ON    THE    GOVERNMENT     OF     VfiRBS. 


480.  Of  two  kinds 


481.  Dying-day 

482.  I  am  beaten 


483,  484.  The  infinitive 
485.  The  imperative 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ON   THE   PARTICIPLES. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

ON   THE   MOODS. 


XXI 


PAGE 

326 


327 
327 


328,  329 


330—332 
332—334 

334,  335 

335,  336 


336,  887 


838 
338 


340 
841 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  XX. 

ON   THE   TENSES. 
SECTION  PAGE 

486.  Present  .  .  .  .  .342 

486,  487.  Preterite  ....  342 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

SYNTAX  OF  THE  PERSONS  OF  VERBS. 

488,  489.  Their  concord          ....  344 

CHAPTER  XXIL 

ON   THE   VOICES   OF  VERBS. 

490.  Eight  .  .  .  .  .  345 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ON  THE   AUXILIARY   VERBS. 

491.  Their  classification  ....  346 — 348 

492.  I  have  ridden   .....  348 

493.  lam  to  speak  .....         351 

494.  lam  to  blame  ....  351 

495.  /  am  beaten  .  .  .  .  .851 

CHAPTER  XXTV. 

OF   AD\ 


496,  497.  Their  syntax  simple        .                 .                 .  .353 

498.  Termination  -ly  354 

499.  To  walk  and  ride     .                 .                 .                 .  .354 

500.  From  whence,  <fec.             ....  354,  355 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

ON   PREPOSITIONS. 

501.  Climb  up  a  tree                ....  356 

502.  Part  of  the  body                      ...  356 


CONTENTS.  XX111 
CHAPTER  XXVI. 

ON  CONJUNCTIONS. 

SECTION  PAGE 

503,  504.  Their  nature    ....  357 — 359 

505.  Their  government            .....  359 

506 — 511.  The  subjunctive  mood  .                 .                 .  359 — 364 

512.  Use  of  that      .                 .                 .                 .                 .  364 

513.  Succession  of  tenses                 .                -                .  .364 

514.  Disjunctives     .....  365 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NEGATIVE. 

515.  Its  place           .....  366 

516.  Its  distribution        .....         866 

517.  Two  negatives                  ....  367 

518.  Questions  of  appeal  ....         867 

CHAPTER  XXVIIL 

ON   THE   CASE   ABSOLUTE. 

519.  Its  participial  character                   .                 .                 .  869 


PART  VI. 

PROSODY. 

520.  Derivation  of  the  word                   .                 .                .  371 

521,  522.  Importance  of  accent      .                 .                 .  .371 
523 — 526.  Measures                 .                 .                 .                 .  372,  373 
527.  Metrical  notation                      ....         374 
528—535.  Rhyme                    ....  374—377 

536.  Blank  verse             .                 .                 .                 .  .377 

537,  538.  Last  syllable  indifferent           .                 .                 .  378 
539,  540.  Names  of  common  English  metres  .                 .  379 — 384 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 


PART  VII. 

DIALECTS    OF    THE    ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

SECTION  PAGE 

541.  Saxons  and  Angles           .                 .  .                 .                 385 

542 — 544.  Dialects  not  coincident                   .  .                 385,  380 

545,  546.  Traces  of  the  Danes                 .  .                 .         386,  387 

547  Mercian  origin  of  the  written  English    .  .                 .387 

NOTES  393 


AN    INTRODUCTION 


TO    THE    STUDY    OF 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 


PART    I. 

GENERAL  ETHNOLOGICAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GERMANIC    ORIGIN    OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. DATE. 

§  1.  THE  first  point  to  be  remembered  in  the  history 
of  the  English  language,  is  that  it  was  not  the  primitive 
and  original  tongue  of  any  of  the  British  Islands,  nor 
yet  of  any  portion  of  them.  Indeed,  of  the  whole  of  Great 
Britain  it  is  not  the  language  at  the  present  moment. 
Welsh  is  spoken  in  Wales,  Manks  in  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  Scotch  Gaelic  in  the  Highlands  .of  Scotland ;  besides 
which  there  is  the  Irish  Gaelic  in  Ireland. 

§  2.  The  next  point  to  be  considered  is  the  real  origin 
and  the  real  affinities  of  the  English  language. 

Its  real  origin  is  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  its 
real  affinities  are  with  certain  languages  there  spoken. 
To  speak  more  specifically,  the  native  country  of  the 

2 


2  GEEMANIC   OKIGIN   OF 

English  language  is  Germany  ;  and  the  Germanic  lan- 
guages are  those  that  are  the  most  closely  connected 
with  our  own.  In  Germany,  languages  and  dialects 
allied  to  each  other  and  allied  to  the  mother-tongue  of 
the  English  have  been  spoken  from  times  anterior  to 
history ;  and  these,  for  most  purposes  of  philology,  may 
be  considered  as  the  aboriginal  languages  and  dialects  of 
that  country. 

§  3.  Accredited  details  of  the  different  immigrations 
from  Germany  into  Britain. — Until  lately  the  details 
of  the  different  Germanic  invasions  of  England,  both 
in  respect  to  the  particular  tribes  by  which  they  were 
made,  and  the  order  in  which  they  succeeded  each  other, 
were  received  with  but  little  doubt,  and  as  little  criti- 
cism. 

Respecting  the  tribes  by  which  they  were  made, 
the  current  opinion  was,  that  they  were  chiefly,  if  not 
exclusively,  those  of  the  Jutes,  the  Saxons,  and  the 
Angles. 

The  particular  chieftains  that  headed  each  descent 
were  also  supposed  to  be  known,  as  well  as  the  different 
localities  upon  which  they  descended.1  These  were  as 
follows : — 

First  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — The 
account  of  this  gives  us  A.  D.  449  for  the  first  perma- 
nent Germanic  tribes  settled  in  Britain.  Ebbsfleet,  in 
the  Isle  of  Thanet,  was  the  spot  where  they  landed ; 
and  the  particular  name  that  these  tribes  gave  themselves 
was  that  of  Jutes.  Their  leaders  were  Hengist  and  Horsa. 
Six  years  after  their  landing  they  had  established  the 
kingdom  of  Kent ;  so  that  the  county  of  Kent  was  the 
first  district  where  the  original  British  was  superseded 
by  the  mother-tongue  of  the  present  English,  introduced 
from  Germany. 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  3 

Second  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — A.  D. 
477  invaders  from  Northern  Germany  made  the  second 
permanent  settlement  in  Britain.  The  coast  of  Sussex 
was  the  spot  whereon  they  landed.  The  particular  name 
that-  these  tribes  gave  themselves  was  that  of  Saxons. 
Their  leader  was  Ella.  They  established  the  kingdom  of 
the  South  Saxons  (Sussex  or  Sub-Seaxe) ;  so  that  the 
county  of  Sussex  was  the  second  district  where  the  origin- 
al British  was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue  of  the  pre- 
sent English,  introduced  from  Germany. 

Third  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — A.  D. 
495  invaders  from  Northen  Germany  made  the  third  per- 
manent settlement  in  Britain.  The  coast  of  Hampshire 
was  the  spot  whereon  they  landed.  Like  the  invaders 
last  mentioned,  these  tribes  were  Saxons.  Their  leader 
was  Cerdic.  They  established  the  kingdom  of  the  West 
Saxons  (Wessex  or  West-Seaxe) ;  so  that  the  county  of 
Hants  was  the  third  district  where  the  original  British 
was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue  of  the  present  Eng- 
lish, introduced  from  Germany. 

Fourth  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — A.  D. 
530,  certain  Saxons  landed  in  Essex,  so  that  the  county  of 
Essex  [East-Seaxe]  was  the  fourth  district  where  the  orig- 
inal British  was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue  of  the 
present  English,  introduced  from  Northern  Germany. 

Fifth  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — These 
were  Angles  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  The  precise  date 
of  this  settlement  is  not  known.  The  fifth  district  where 
the  original  British  was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue 
of  the  present  English  was  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk;  the  particular  dialect  introduced  being  that  of 
the  Angles. 

Sixth  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — A.  D. 
547  invaders  from  Northern  Germany  made  the  sixth 


4  GERMANIC   ORIGIN   OF 

permanent  settlement  in  Britain.  The  southeastern 
counties  of  Scotland,  between  the  rivers  Tweed  and 
Forth,  were  the  districts  where  they  landed.  They  were 
of  the  tribe  of  the  Angles,  and  their  leader  was  Ida.  The 
south-eastern  parts  of  Scotland  constituted  the  sixth  dis- 
trict where  the  original  British  was  superseded  by  the 
mother-tongue  of  the  present  English,  introduced  from 
Northern  Germany. 

§  4.  It  would  be  satisfactory  if  these  details  rested 
upon  contemporary  evidence.  This,  however,  is  far  from 
being  the  case. 

1.  The  evidence  to  the  details  just  given,  is  not  his- 
torical, but  traditional. — a.  Beda,2  from  whom  it  is  chiefly 
taken,  wrote  nearly  300  years  after  the  supposed  event, 
i.  e.,  the  landing  of  Hengist  and  Horsa,  in  A.  n.  449. 

6.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  contemporary  author  is 
Gildas,3  and  he  wrote  full  100  years  after  it. 

2.  The  account  of  Hengisfs  and  Horsds  landing, 
has  elements  which  are  fictional  rather  than  historical — 
a.  Thus  "  when  we  find  Hengist  and  Horsa  approaching 
the  coasts  of  Kent  in  three  keels,  and  JElli  eifecting  a 
landing  in  Sussex  with  the  same  number,  we  are  remind- 
ed of  the  Gothic  tradition  which  carries  a  migration  of 
Ostrogoths/  Visigoths,  and  Gepidse,  also  in  three  vessels, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula." — Kemble,  "  Saxons  in  Eng- 
land." 

6.  The  murder  of  the  British  chieftains  by  Hengist 
is  told  totidem  verbis,  by  Widukind5  and  others,  of  the 
Old  Saxons  in  Thuringia. 

c.  Geoffry  of  Monmouth6  relates  also,  how  "  Hengist 
obtained  from  the  Britons  as  much  land  as  could  be 
enclosed  by  an  ox-hide;  then,  cutting  the  hide  into 
thongs,  enclosed  a  much  larger  space  than  the  granters 
intended,  on  which  he  erected  Thong  Castle — a  tale  too 


THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  5 

familiar  to  need  illustration,  and  which  runs  throughout 
the  my  thus  of  many  nations.  Among  the  Old  Saxons, 
the  tradition  is  in  reality  the  same,  though  recorded  with 
a  slight  variety  of  detail.  In  their  story,  a  lapfull  of 
earth  is  purchased  at  a  dear  rate  from  a  Thuringian ; 
the  companions  of  the  Saxon  jeer  him  for  his  imprudent 
bargain ;  but  he  sows  the  purchased  earth  upon  a  large 
space  of  ground,  which  he  claims,  and,  by  the  aid  of  his 
comrades,  ultimately  wrests  it  from  the  Thuringians." 
— Kemble,  "  Saxons  in  England." 

3.  There  is  direct  evidence  in  favour  of  their  having 
been  German  tribes  in  England  anterior  to  A.  D.  447. — a. 
At  the  close  of  the  Marcomannic  •  war,7  Marcus  Anto- 
ninus transplanted  a  number  of  Germans  into  Britain.  • 

b.  Alemannic   auxiliaries    served   along  with  Roman 
legions  under  Valentinian.8 

c.  The  Notitia  utriusque  Imperii,9  of  wThich  the  latest 
date  is  half  a  century  earlier  than  the  epoch  of  Hengist, 
mentions,  as  an  officer  of  state,  the  Comes  littoris  Sax- 
onici  per  Britannias ;  his   government  extending  along 
the  coast  from  Portsmouth  to  the  Wash. 

§  5.  Inference. — As  it  is  nearly  certain,  that  449 
A.  D.  is  not  the  date  of  the  first  introduction  of  German 
tribes  into  Britain,  we  must  consider  that  the  displace- 
ment of  the  original  British  began  at  an  earlier  period 
than  the  one  usually  admitted,  and,  consequently,  that  it 
was  more  gradual  than  is  usually  supposed. 

Perhaps,  if  we  substitute  the  middle  of  the  fourth, 
instead  of  the  middfe  of  the  fifth  century,  as  the  epoch  of 
the  Germanic  immigrations  into  Britain,  we  shall  not  be 
far  from  the  truth. 


GERMANIC   OKIGIN   OF 


CHAPTER  II. 

GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. THE  GER- 
MANIC AREA  OF  THE  PARTICULAR  GERMANS  WHO  INTRO- 
DUCED IT. EXTRACT  FROM  BEDA. 

§  6.  OUT  of  the  numerous  tribes  and  nations  of  Ger- 
many, three  have  been  more  especially  mentioned  as  the 
chief,  if  not  the  exclusive,  sources  of  the  present  English 
population  of  Great  Britain.  These  are  the  Jutes,  the 
Saxons,  and  the  Angles. 

§  7.  Now,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  this  was  the 
case.  On  the  contrary,  good  reasons  can  be  given  for 
believing  that  the  Angles  and  Saxons  were  the  same 
people,  and  that  no  such  nation  as  the  Jutes  ever  left 
Germany  to  settle  in  Great  Britain. 

§  8.  The  chief  authority  for  the  division  of  the  Ger- 
man invaders  into  the  three  nations  just  mentioned  is 
Beda  ;  and  the  chief  text  is  the  following  extract  from 
his  "  Ecclesiastical  History."  It  requires  particular 
attention,  and  will  form  the  basis  of  much  criticism,  and 
frequently  be  referred  to. 

"  Advenerunt  autem  de  tribus  Germanise  populis  for- 
tioribus,  id  est  Saxonibus,  Anglis.  Jutis.  De  Jutarum 
origine  sunt  Cantuarii,  et  Victuarii,  hoc  est  ea  gens  quse 
Yectam  tenet  insulam  et  ea  quae  usque  hodie  in  pro- 
vincia  Occidentalium  Saxonum  Jutarum  natio  nomi- 
natur,  posita  contra  ipsam  insulam  Vectam.  De 


THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  7 

Saxonibus,  id  est,  ea  regione  quae  nunc  Antiquorum 
Saxonum  cognominatur,  venere  Orientales  Saxones,  Me- 
ridian! Saxones,  Occidui  Saxones.  Porro  de  Anglis  hoc 
est  de  ilia  patria  quae  Angulus  dicitur,  et  ab  illo  tern- 
pore  usque  hodie  manere  desertus  inter  provincias  Ju- 
tarum  et  Saxonum  perhibetur,  Orientales  Angli,  Me- 
diterranei  Angli,  Merci,  tota  Northanhymbrorum  pro- 
genies, id  est  illarum  gentium  quae  ad  Boream  Humbri 
flurninis  inhabitant,  caeterique  Anglorum  populi  sunt 
orti." — "  Historia  Ecclesiastica."  i.  15. 

§  9.  This  was  written  about  A.D.  731,  131  years 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  nearly  300 
after  the  supposed  landing  of  Hengist  and  Horsa  in 
A.D.  449. 

It  is  the  first  passage  which  contains  the  names  of 
either  the  Angles  or  the  Jutes.  Gildas,  who  wrote  more 
than  150  years  earlier,  mentions  only  the  Saxons — "  fero- 
cissimi  illi  nefandi  nominis  Saxones." 

It  is,  also,  the  passage  which  all  subsequent  writers 
have  either  translated  or  adopted.  Thus  it  re-appears  in 
Alfred,  and  again  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle.10 


"  Of    Jotum    comon    Cantware  From  the  Jutes  came    the  in- 

"  and     Wihtware,      ]>aet     is     seo  habitants   of  Kent  and  of  "Wight, 

"  maeiaS    )>e   nu   earda]>   on  Wiht,  that  is,  the  race  that  now  dwells 

"  and  )>set   cynn    on   West-Sexnm  in  Wight,  and  that  tribe  amongst 

"  35  e    man     gyt     haet     lutnacyun.  the     West-Saxons    which    is    yet 

"  Of    Eald-Seaxum     comon    East-  called  the  Jute  tribe.     From  the 

"  Seaxan,     and    Su5-Seaxan     and  Old-Saxons     came    the    East-Sax- 

"  West-Seaxan.       Of     Angle     co-  ons,  and  South-Saxons,  and  West- 

"  mon  (se    a    si^^an   stod   westig  Saxons.      From   the   Angles,   land 

"  betwix     lutum     and     Seaxum)  (which    has    since     always     stood 

"  East  -  Engle,         Middel  -  Angle,  waste  betwixt  the  Jutes  and  Sax- 

"  Mearce,     and      ealle     NorSym-  ons)   came   the   East- Angles,   Mid- 

"  bra."  die- Angles,  Mercians,  and   all   the 

Northumbrians. 


8  GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF 

§  10.  A  portion  of  these  extracts  will  now  be  sub- 
mitted to  criticism ;  that  portion  being  the  statement 
concerning  the  Jutes. 

The  words  usque  hodie — Jutarum  natio  nominatur 
constitute  contemporary  and  unexceptionable  evidence  to 
the  existence  of  a  people  with  a  name  like  that  of  the 
Jutes  in  the  time  of  Beda — or  A.  D.  731. 

The  exact  name  is  not  so  certain.  The  term  Jut- 
nacyn  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  is  in  favour  of 
the  notion  that  it  began  with  the  sounds  of  j  and  u,  in 
other  words  that  it  was  Jut. 

But  the  term  Geatum,  which  we  find  in  Alfred,  favours 
the  form  in  g  followed  by  ea. 

Thirdly,  the  forms  Wihtware,  and  Wihttan,  suggest 
the  likelihood  of  the  name  being  Wiht. 

Lastly,  there  is  a  passage  in  Asserius ' l  which  gives 
us  the  form  Gwith—"  Mater "  (of  Alfred  the  Great) 
"  quoque  ejusdem  Osburgh  nominabatur,  religiosa  nimium 
foemina,  nobilis  ingenio,  nobilis  et  genere ;  quae  erat 
filia  Oslac  famosi  pincernae  JEthelwulf  regis ;  qui  Oslac 
Gothus  erat  natione,  ortus  enim  erat  de  Gothis  et 
Jutis  ;  de  semine  scilicet  Stuf  et  Wihtgur,  duorum  fratrum 
et  etiam  comitum,  qui  aecepta  potestate  Vectis  insulse 
ab  avunculo  suo  Cerdic  rege  et  Cynric  filio  suo,  conso- 
brino  eorum,  paucos  Britones  ejusdem  insulae  accolas, 
quos  in  ea  invenire  potuerant,  in  loco  qui  dicitur, 
Gwithgaraburgh  occiderunt,  cseteri  enim  accolae  ejusdem 
insulse  ante  sunt  occisi  aut  exules  aufugerant." — Asserius, 
"  De  Gestis  Alfredi  Regis." 

Now,  Gwith-gara-burgh  means  the  burg  or  town  of 
the  With-ware  ;12  these  being,  undoubtedly,  no  Germans 
at  all,  but  the  native  Britons  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 
(Vectis),  whose  designation  in  Latin  would  be  Vecti- 
or  Vectiemes. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  9 

This  being  the  case,  how  can  they  be  descended  from 
German  or  Danish  Jutes  ?  and  how  can  we  reconcile  the 
statement  of  Beda  with  that  of  Asser  ? 

§  11.  The  answer  to  this  will  be  given  after  another 
fact  has  been  considered. 

Precisely  the  same  confusion  between  the  sounds  of 
w>  ji  Si  i°i  e(R->  u->  anc^  *>  which  occurs  with  the  so-called 
Jutes  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  occurs  with  the  Jutlanders 
of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland.  The  common  forms  are 
Jutland,  Jute,  Jutones,  and  Jutenses,  but  they  are  not 
the  only  ones.  In  A.  D.  952,  we  find  "  Dania  cismarina 
quam  Vitland  incolae  appellant." — "  Annales  Saxonici."13 

§  12.  Putting  these  facts  together  I  adopt  the  evi- 
dence of  Asser  as  to  the  Gwithware  being  British,  and 
consider  them  as  simple  Vecti-cola,  or  inhabitants  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  They  are  also  the  Vectuarii  of  Beda, 
the  Wihtware  of  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  and  the  Wiht- 
scetan  of  Alfred. 

The  Jutes  of  Hampshire — i.  e.,  the  "  Jutarum  natio — 
posita  contra  ipsam  insulam  Yectam,"  and  the  Jutna- 
cyn,  I  consider  to  have  been  the  same  ;  except  that  they 
had  left  the  Isle  of  "Wight  to  settle  on  the  opposite  coast ; 
probably  flying  before  their  German  conquerors,  in  which 
case  they  would  be  the  exules  of  Asser. 

The  statement  of  Beda,  so  opposed  to  that  of  Asser, 
I  explain  by  supposing  that  it  arose  out  of  an  inaccurate 
inference  drawn  from  the  similarity  of  the  names  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  since 
we  have  seen  that  in  both  cases,  there  was  a  similar  con- 
fusion between  the  syllables  Jut-  and  Vit-.  This  is  an 
error  into  which  even  a  careful  writer  might  fall.  That 
Beda  had  no  authentic  historical  accounts  of  the  conquest 
of  Britain,  we  know  from  his  own  statements  in  the 
Preface  to  his  Ecclesiastical  History,14  and  that  he  par- 
2* 


10  GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF 

tially  tried  to  make  up  for  the  want  of  them  by  infe- 
rence is  exceedingly  likely.  If  so,  what  would  be  more 
natural  than  for  him  to  conclude  that  Jutes  as  well  as  An- 
gles helped  to  subdue  the  country.  The  fact  itself  was 
probable  ;  besides  which  he  saw  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
in  England  VitcB  (called  also  Jutce),  in  immediate  contact 
with  Savons*  and  on  the  continent  JutcB  (called  also  VitcB) 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Anglest  and  Saxons.  Is  it  sur- 
prising that  he  should  connect  them  ? 

§  13.  If  the  inhabitants  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  were 
really  Jutes  from  Jutland,  it  is  strange  that  there  should 
be  no  traces  of  the  difference  which  existed,  then  as  now, 
between  them  and  the  proper  Anglo-Saxons — a  differ- 
ence which  was  neither  inconsiderable  nor  of  a  fleeting 
nature. 

TJie  present  Jutlanders  are  not  Germans  but  Danes, 
and  the  Jutes  of  the  time  of  Beda  were  most  probably 
the  same.  Those  of  the  llth  century  were  certainly 
so,  "  Primi  ad  ostium  Baltici  Sinus  in  australi  ripa  versus 
nos  Dani,  quos  Juthas  appellant,  usque  ad  Sliam  lacurn 
habitant."  Adamus  Bremensis,15  "  De  Situ  Danise"  c. 
221.  Also,  "  Et  prima  pars  Daniae,  quse  Jutland  dicitur, 

ad  Egdoramt  in  Boream  longitudine  pretenditur in 

eum  angulum  qui  Windila  dicitur,  ubi  Jutland  finem 
habet,"  c.  208. 

At  the  time  of  Beda  they  must,  according  to  the  re- 
ceived traditions,  have  been  nearly  300  years  in  pos- 
session of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  a  locality  as  favourable 
for  the  preservation  of  their  peculiar  manners  and  cus- 
toms as  any  in  Great  Britain,  and  a  locality  wherein  we 
have  no  evidence  of  their  ever  having  been  disturbed. 
Nevertheless,  neither  trace  nor  shadow  of  a  trace,  either 

*  In  Hampshire.  f  In  Northern  Germany, 

t  The  Eyder. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  11 

in  early  or  modern  times,  has  ever  been  discovered  of  their 
separate  nationality  and  language  ;  a  fact  which  stands 
in  remarkable  contrast  with  the  very  numerous  traces 
which  the  Danes  of  the  9th  and  10th  century  left  behind 
them  as  evidence  of  their  occupancy. 

§  14.  The  words  England  and  English  are  derived 
from  the  Angles  of  Beda.  The  words  Sussex,  Essex, 
Middlesex  and  Wessex,  from  his  Saxons.  No  objection 
lies  against  this ;  indeed  to  deny  that  populations  called 
Angle  and  Saxon  occupied  England  and  spoke  the 
Anglo-Saxon  language  would  display  an  unnecessary  and 
unhealthy  scepticism.  The  real  question  concerning  these 
two  words  consists  in  the  relation  which  the  popula- 
tions to  which  they  were  applied  bore  to  each  other. 
And  this  question  is  a  difficult  one.  Did  the  Angles 
speak  one  language,  whilst  the  Saxons  spoke  another  ? 
or  did  they  both  speak  dialects  of  the  same  tongue-? 
Were  these  dialects  slightly  or  widely  different?  Can 
we  find  traces  of  the  difference  in  any  of  the  present 
provincial  dialects  ?  Are  the  idioms  of  one  country  of 
Angle,  whilst  those  of  another  are  of  Saxon  origin? 
Was  the  Angle  more  like  the  Danish  language,  whilst 
the  Saxon  approached  the  Dutch  ?  None  of  these  ques- 
tions can  be  answered  at  present.  They  have,  however, 
been  asked  for  the  sake  of  exhibiting  the  nature  of  the 
subject. 

§  15.  The  extract  from  Beda  requires  further  re- 
marks. 

The  Angles  of  Beda. — The  statement  of  Beda  re- 
specting the  Angles,  like  his  statement  concerning  the 
Jutes,  reappears  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  and  in 
Alfred. 

Ethelweard  l6  also  adopts  it : — "  Anglia  vetus  sita  est 
inter  Saxones  et  Griotos,  habens  oppidum  capitale  quod 


12  GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF 

serrnone  Saxonico  Sleswic  nuncupatur,  secundum  vero 
Danos  Hathaby? 

Nevertheless,  it  is  exceptionable  and  unsatisfactory  ; 
and  like  the  previous  one,  in  all  probability,  an  incorrect 
inference  founded  upon  the  misinterpretation  of  a  name. 

In  the  eighth  century  there  was,  and  at  the  present 
moment  there  is,  a  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Sleswick 
called  Anglen  or  the  corner.  It  is  really  what  its  name 
denotes,  a  triangle  of  irregular  shape,  formed  by  the 
Slie,  the  firth  of  Flensborg,  and  a  line  drawn  from  Flens- 
borg  to  Sleswick.  It  is  just  as  Danish  as  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula,  and  cannot  be  shown  to  have  been  occupied 
by  a  Germanic  population  at  all.  Its  area  is  less  than 
that  of  the  county  of  Rutland,  and  by  no  means  likely 
to  have  supplied  such  a  population  as  that  of  the  Angles 
of  England.  The  fact  of  its  being  a  desert  at  the  time  of 
Beda  is  credible ;  since  it  formed  a  sort  of  Marcli  or 
Debatable  Ground  between  the  Saxons  and  Slavonians 
of  Holstein,  and  the  Danes  of  Jutland. 

Now  if  we  suppose  that  the  real  Angles  of  Germany 
were  either  so  reduced  in  numbers  as  to  have  become  an 
obscure  tribe,  or  so  incorporated  with  other  populations 
as  to  have  lost  their  independent  existence,  we  can  easily 
see  how  the  similarity  of  name,  combined  with  the  geo- 
graphical contiguity  of  Anglen  to  the  Saxon  frontier, 
might  mislead  even  so  good  a  writer  as  Beda,  into  the 
notion  that  he  had  found  the  country  of  the  Angles  in  the 
Angulus  (Anglen)  of  Sleswick. 

The  true  Angles  were  the  descendants  of  the  Angli 
of  Tacitus.  Who  these  were  will  be  investigated  in  §§  47 
—54. 

§  16.  The  Saxons  of  Beda.— The  Saxons  of  Beda 
reached  from  the  country  of  the  Old  Saxons*  on  the 

*  See  §§  21—29. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  13 

Lippe,  in  Westphalia,  to  that  of  the  Nordalbingian* 
Saxons  between  the  Elbe  and  Eyder;  and  nearly, 
but  not  quite,  coincided  with  the  present  countries  of 
Hanover,  Oldenburg,  Westphalia,  and  part  of  Holstein. 
This  we  may  call  the  Saxon,  or  (as  reasons  will  be  given 
for  considering  that  it  nearly  coincided  with  the  country 
of  the  Angles)  the  Anglo-Saxon  area. 

§  17.  River-system  and  sea-board  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
area. — As  the  invasion  of  England  took  place  by  sea, 
we  must  expect  to  find  in  the  invaders  a  maritime  popula- 
tion. This  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the  physical 
character  of  that  part  of  Germany  which  they  occupied. 
And  here  comes  a  remarkable  and  unexpected  fact. 
The  line  of  coast  between  the  Rhine  and  Elbe,  the  line 
which  in  reasoning  a  priori,  we  should  fix  upon  as  the 
most  likely  tract  for  the  bold  seamen  who  wrested  so 
large  an  island  as  Great  Britain  from  its  original  oc- 
cupants (changing  it  from  Britain  to  England),  to 
have  proceeded  from,  is  not  the  country  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  the  country  of  a  similar 
but  diiferent  section  of  the  Germanic  population,  a  section 
which  has  not  received  the  attention  from  the  English 
historian  which  it  deserves.  The  country  in  question  is 
the  area  of — 

§  18.  The  Frisians. — At  the  present  moment  the 
language  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Friesland  is  materially 
different  from  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  kingdom 
of  Holland.  In  other  words  it  is  not  Dutch.  Neither 
is  it  German  —  although,  of  course,  it  resembles 
both  languages.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  like 
the  English  than  any  other  language  or  dialect  in  Ger- 
many is. 

It  is  a  language  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  al- 
*  Saxons  North  of  the  Elbe  (Albis). 


14  GERMANIC    ORIGIN   OF 

though  at  present  it  is  spoken  by  the  country-people 
only,  it  possesses  a  considerable  literature.  There  is 
the  Middle  Frisian  of  Gysbert  Japicx,17  and  the  Old 
Frisian  of  the  Frisian  Laws.18  The  older  the  specimen 
of  the  Frisian  language  the  more  closely  does  it  show  its 
affinity  to  the  English  ;  hence  the  earliest  Frisian  and 
the  Anglo-Saxon  are  exceedingly  alike.  Nevertheless 
they  differ. 

§  19.  The  Frisian  was  once  spoken  over  a  far  greater 
area  than  at  present.  It  was  the  original  language  of 
almost  all  Holland.  It  was  the  language  of  East  Fries- 
land  to  a  late  period.  It  was,  probably,  the  language 
of  the  ancient  Chauci.  At  the  present  time  (besides 
Friesland)  it  survives  in  Heligoland,  in  the  islands  be- 
tween the  Ems  and  Weser.  in  part  of  Sleswick,  and  in  a 
few  localities  in  Oldenburg  and  Westphalia. 

Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  original  Frisian,  ex- 
tending to  an  uncertain  and  irregular  distance  inland, 
lay  between  the  Saxons  and  the  sea,  and  stretched  from 
the  Zuyder  Zee  to  the  Elbe  ;  a  fact  which  would  leave 
to  the  latter  nation  the  lower  Elbe  and  the  Weser  as 
their  water-system :  the  extent  to  which  they  were  in 
direct  contact  with  the  ocean  being  less  than  we  are  pre- 
pared to  expect  from  their  subsequent  history. 

On  the  other  hand  the  a  priori  probabilities  of  there 
being  Frisians  as  well  as  Anglo-Saxons  amongst  the  con- 
querors of  Great  Britain  are  considerable. — See  §§  55, 
56. 

§  20.  The  Anglo-Saxon  area  coincided — 

1.  Politically. — With  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,   the 
duchy    of  Oldenburg,    and    parts    of    Westphalia    and 
Holstein. 

2.  Physically.— With  the  basin  of  the  Weser. 

It  was  certaMy  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  probably 


THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  15 

from  a  part  of  the  Frisian  area  that  Great  Britain  was 
first  invaded. 

This  is  as  much  as  it  is  safe  to  say  at  present.  The 
preceding  chapter  investigated  the  date  of  the  Germanic 
migration  into  Britain;  the  present  has  determined  the 
area  from  which  it  went  forth. 


16  THE   DIALECTS   OF 


CHAPTER   III. 

OF     THE    DIALECTS     OF     THE     SAXON    AREA,     AND     OF     THE     SO- 
CALLED     OLD     SAXON. 

§  21.  THE  area  occupied  by  the  Saxons  of  Germany 
has  been  investigated  ;  and  it  now  remains  to  ask,  how 
far  the  language  of  the  occupants  was  absolutely  iden- 
tical throughout,  or  how  far  it  fell  into  dialects  or  sub- 
dialects. 

There  were  at  least  two  divisions  of  the  Saxon ;  (1st) 
the  Saxon  of  which  the  extant  specimens  are  of  English 
origin,  and  (2nd),  the  Saxon  of  which  the  extant  spe- 
cimens are  of  Continental  origin.  We  will  call  these 
at  present  the  Saxon  of  England,  and  the  Saxon  of  the 
Continent. 

§  22.  Respecting  the  Saxon  of  England  and  the  Saxon 
of  the  Continent,  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that 
the  first  was  spoken  in  the  northern,  the  second  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Saxon  area,  i.  e.,  the  one  in  Hano- 
ver and  the  other  in  Westphalia,  the  probable  boundaries 
between  them  being  the  line  of  highlands  between  Os- 
naburg  and  Paderborn. 

§  23.  Respecting  the  Saxon  of  England  and  the  Saxon 
of  the  Continent,  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that, 
whilst  the  former  was  the  mother-tongue  of  the  Angles 
and  the  conquerors  of  England,  the  latter  was  that  of  the 
Cherusci  of  Arminius,  the  conquerors  and  the  annihila- 
tors  of  the  legions  of  Varus.19 

§   24.  Respecting    the   Saxon   of  England    and   the 


THE   SAXON   AKEA.  17 

Saxon  of  the  Continent,  it  is  a  fact  that,  whilst  we  have 
a  full  literature  in  the  former,  we  have  but  fragmentary 
specimens  of  the  latter — these  being  chiefly  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  the  Heliand,20  (2)  Hildubrand  and  Hathu- 
brant,21  (3)  the  Carolinian  Psalms.22 

§  25.  The  preceding  points  have  been  predicated 
respecting  the  difference  between  the  two  ascertained 
Saxon  dialects,  for  the  sake  of  preparing  the  reader  for 
the  names  by  which  they  are  known. 

THE  SAXON  OF  THE  CONTINENT  THE  SAXON  OF  ENGLAND 

MAY  BE  CALLED  MAY  BE  CALLED 

1.  Continental  Saxon.  Insular  Saxon. 

2.  German  Saxon.  English  Saxon. 

3.  Westphalian  Saxon.  Hanoverian  Saxon. 

4.  South  Saxon.  North  Saxon. 

5.  Cheruscan  Saxon.  Angle  Saxon. 

6.  Saxon  of  the  Heliand.  Saxon  of  Beowulf.  23 

§  26.  The  Saxon  of  England  is  called  Anglo-Saxon ; 
a  term  against  which  no  exception  can  be  raised. 

§  27.  The  Saxon  of  the  Continent  used  to  be  called 
J9a/io-Saxon,  and  is  called  Old  Saxon. 

§  28.  Why  called  ~D&no-Saxon. — When  the  poem 
called  Heliand  was  first  discovered  in  an  English  library, 
the  difference  in  language  between  it  and  the  common 
Anglo-Saxon  composition  was  accounted  for  by  the 
assumption  of  a  Danish  intermixture. 

§  29.  Why  called  Old  Saxon.— When  the  Continental 
origin  of  the  Heliand  was  recognised,  the  language  was 
called  Old  Saxon,  because  it  represented  the  Saxon  of 
the  mother-country,  the  natives  of  which  were  called  Old 
Stixons  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  themselves.  Still  the  term 
is  exceptionable;  as  the  Saxon  of  the  Heliand  is  pro- 
bably a  sister-dialect  of  the  Anglo- Saxon,  rather  the 
Anglo-Ssixon  itself  in  a  Continental  locality.  Exception- 
able, however,  as  it  is,  it  will  be  employed. 


18  AFFINITIES   OF   ENGLISH 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AFFINITIES     OF     THE     ENGLISH     WITH     THE     LANGUAGES     OF 
GERMANY     AND     SCANDINAVIA. 

§  30.  OVER  and  above  those  languages  of  Germany 
and  Holland  which  were  akin  to  the  dialects  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  cognate  languages  were  spoken  in  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Norway,  Iceland,  and  the  Feroe  isles, 
i.e.,  in  Scandinavia. 

§  31.  The  general  collective  designation  for  the  Ger- 
manic tongues  of  Germany  and  Holland,  and  for  the 
Scandinavian  languages  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Iceland,  and  the  Feroe  Isles,  is  taken  from  the  name  of 
those  German  tribes  who,  during  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  were  best  known  to  the  Romans  as 
the  Goths ;  the  term  Gothic  for  the  Scandinavian  and 
Germanic  languages,  collectively,  being  both  current 
and  convenient. 

§  32.  Of  this  great  stock  of  languages  the  Scandi- 
navian is  one  branch;  the  Germanic,  called  also  Teu- 
tonic, another. 

§  33.  The  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Gothic  stock 
comprehends,  1.  The  dialects  of  Scandinavia  Proper,  i.e., 
of  Norway  and  Sweden ;  2.  of  the  Danish  isles  and 
Jutland  ;  3.  of  Iceland  ;  4.  of  the  Feroe  Isles. 

§  34.  The  Teutonic  branch  falls  into  three  divisions  : — 

1.  The  Moeso-Gothic. 

2.  The  High  Germanic. 


WITH   GERMAN  AND   SCANDINAVIAN.  19 

8.  The  Low  Germanic. 

§  35.  It  is  in  the  Moeso-Gothic  that  the  most  ancient 
specimen  of  any  Gothic  tongue  has  been  preserved.  It 
is  also  the  Moeso-Gothic  that  was  spoken  by  the  con- 
querors of  ancient  Rome  ;  by  the  subjects  of  Hermanric, 
Alaric,  Theodoric,  Euric,  Athanaric,  and  Totila. 

In  the  reign  of  Valens,  when  pressed  by  intestine  wars, 
and  by  the  movements  of  the  Huns,  the  Goths  were 
assisted  by  that  emperor,  and  settled  in  the  Roman  pro- 
vince of  Mossia. 

Furthermore,  they  were  converted  to  Christianity ; 
and  the  Bible  was  translated  into  their  language  by  their 
Bishop  Ulphilas. 

Fragments  of  this  translation,  chiefly  from  the  Gospels, 
have  come  down  to  the  present  time ;  and  the  Bible 
translation  of  the  Arian  Bishop  Ulphilas,  in  the  language 
of  the  Goths  of  Mcesia,  during  the  reign  of  Valens,  ex- 
hibits the  earliest  sample  of  any  Gothic  tongue. 

§  36.  The  Old  High  German,  called  also  Francic24 
and  Alemannic,25  was  spoken  in  the  ninth,  tenth,  and 
eleventh  centuries,  in  Suabia,  Bavaria,  and  Franconia. 

The  Middle  High  German  ranges  from  the  thirteenth 
century  to  the  Reformation. 

§  37.  The  low  Germanic  division,  to  which  the  An- 
glo-Saxon belongs,  is  currently  said  to  comprise  six  lan- 
guages, or  rather  four  languages  in  different  stages. 

I.  II. — The  Anglo-Saxon  and  Modern  English. 

III.  The  Old  Saxon. 

IV.  V.— The  Old  Frisian  and  Modern  Dutch. 
VI.— The  Platt-Deutsch,  or  Low  German. 

§  38.  The  Frisian  and  Dutch. — It  is  a  current  state- 
ment that  the  Old  Frisian  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
Modern  Dutch  of  Holland  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  does  to 
the  English. 


20  AFFINITIES   OF   ENGLISH 

The  truer  view  of  the  question  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  That  a  single  language,  spoken  in  two  dialects,  was 
originally  common  to  both  Holland  and  Friesland. 

2.  That  from  the  northern  of  these  dialects  we  have 
the  Modern  Frisian  of  Friesland. 

3.  From  the  southern,  the  Modern  Dutch  of  Holland. 
The  reason  of  this  refinement  is  as  follows  : — 

The  Modern  Dutch  has  certain  grammatical  forms 
older  than  those  of  the  old  Frisian ;  e.  g.,  the  Dutch  in- 
finitives and  the  Dutch  weak  substantives,  in  their  oblique 
cases,  end  in  -en ;  those  of  the  Old  Frisian  in  -a :  the 
form  in  -en  being  the  older. 

The  true  Frisian  is  spoken  in  few  and  isolated  locali- 
ties. There  is— 

1.  The  Frisian  of  the  Dutch  state  called  Friesland. 

2.  The  Frisian  of  the  parish  of  Saterland,  in  West- 
phalia. 

3.  The  Frisian  of  Heligoland. 

4.  The  North  Frisian,  spoken   in  a  few  villages   of 
Sleswick.     One  of  the  characters  of  the  North  Frisian  is 
the  possession  of  a  dual  number. 

In  respect  to  its  stages,  we  have  the  Old  Frisian  of 
the  Asega-bog,  the  Middle  Frisian  of  Gvsbert  Japicx,* 
and  the  Modern  Frisian  of  the  present  Frieslanders, 
Westphalians,  and  Heligolanders. 

39.  The  Low  German  and  Platt-Deutsch.—The 
words  Low-  German  are  not  only  lax  in  their  application, 
but  they  are  equivocal ;  since  the  term  has  two  meanings, 
a  general  meaning  when  it  signifies  a  division  of  the  Ger- 
manic languages,  comprising  English,  Dutch,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Old  Saxon,  and  Frisian,  and  a  limited  one  when 
it  means  the  particular  dialects  of  the  Ems,  the  Weser. 
and  the  Elbe.  To  avoid  this  the  dialects  in  question 
*  See  Notes  17  and  18. 


WITH   GERMAN   AND   SCANDINAVIAN. 


21 


are  conveniently  called  by  their  continental  name  of 
Platt-Deutsch,  just  as  in  England  we  say  Broad  Scotch. 
§  40.  The  most  characteristic  difference  between  the 
Saxon  and  Icelandic  (indeed  between  the  Teutonic  and 
Scandinavian  tongues)  lies  in  the  peculiar  position  of  the 
definite  article  in  the  latter.  In  Saxon,  the  article  cor- 
responding with  the  modern  word  the,  is  ]>cet,  se,  se6:  for 
the  neuter,  masculine,  and  feminine  genders  respectively  ; 
and  these  words,  regularly  declined,  are  prefixed  to  the 
words  with  which  they  agree,  just  as  is  the  case  with  the 
English  and  with  the  majority  of  languages.  In  Ice- 
landic, however,  the  article  instead  of  preceding,  follows 
its  noun,  with  which  it  coalesces,  having  previously  suffered 
a  change  in  form.  The  Icelandic  article  corresponding 
to  \&t,  se,  seti,  is  hitt,  hinn,  hin  :  from  this  the  h  is  ejected, 
so  that,  instead  of  the  regular  inflection  (a),  we  have  the 
forms  (6). 


Neut. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Sing.  Norn.  Hitt 

Hinn 

Hin. 

Ace.    Hitt 

Hinn 

Hina. 

Dat.    Hinu 

Hinum 

Hinnj. 

Gen.    Hins 

Hiiis 

Hinnar. 

Plur.Nom.  Bin 

Hinir 

Hinar. 

Ace.    Hin 

Hina 

Hinar. 

Dot.    Hinum 

Hinum 

Hinum. 

Gen,    Hiuna 

Hinn  a 

Hinna 

Sing.  Nom.  -it 
Ace.    -it 
Dat.    -nu 
Gen.    -ins 

Plur.Nom.  -in 
Ace.    -in 
Dat.    -num 
Gen.   -nna 


-inn 

.inn 

-num 

'ins 

-nir 

-na 

-num 

-nna 


•in 

-ina  (-na). 

-inni  (-nni). 

-innar  (-nnar). 

-nar. 

-nar. 

-num. 

-nna. 


22  AFFINITIES   OF  ENGLISH 

"Whence,  as  an  affix,  in  composition, 

Neut.  Masc.  Fern. 

Sing.  Norn.  Augat  Boginn  Tungan. 

Ace.    Augat  Boginn  Tuuguna. 

Dat.    Auganu  Boganum  TungunnL 

Gen.    Augans  Bogans  Tungunnor. 

Plur.Nom.  Augun  Bogarnir  Tungurnar. 

Ace.    Augun  Bogana  Tungurnar. 

Dat.    Augunum  Bogunum  Tungunum. 

Gen.    Augnanna  Boganna  Tungnanna. 

In  the  Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  Danish  this  pecu- 
liarity in  the  position  of  the  definite  article  is  preserved. 
Its  origin,  however,  is  concealed ;  and  an  accidental 
identity  with  the  indefinite  article  has  led  to  false  notions 
respecting  its  nature.  In  the  languages  in  point  the  i  is 
changed  into  e,  so  that  what  in  Icelandic  is  it  and  in,  is  in 
Danish  et  and  en.  En,  however,  as  a  separate  word,  is 
the  numeral  one,  and  also  the  indefinite  article  a  ;  whilst 
in  the  neuter  gender  it  is  et — en  sol,  a  sun ;  et  bord, 
a  table  :  solon,  the  sun  ;  bordet,  the  table.  From  modern 
forms  like  those  just  quoted,  it  has  been  imagined  that 
the  definite  is  merely  the  indefinite  article  transposed. 
This  it  is  not. 

To  apply  an  expression  of  Mr.  Gobbet's,  en  =  a,  and 
-en  =  the,  are  the  same  combination  of  letters,  but  not  the 
same  word. 

§  41.  Another  characteristic  of  the  Scandinavian 
language  is  the  possession  of  a  passive  form,  or  a  passive 
voice,  ending  in  -st : — ek,  \u,  hann  brennist  =  I  am, 
thou  art,  he  is  burnt ;  ver  brennumst  =  we  are  burnt ; 
}>er  brennizt  =  ye  are  burnt;  }>eir  brennast  =  they  are 
burnt.  Past  tense,  ek,  ]>u,  hann  brendist ;  ver  bren- 
dumst,  ]>er  brenduzt,  \eir  brendust.  Imperat. :  brenstu 
=  be  thou  burnt.  Infinit. :  brennast  =  to  be  burnt, 


WITH  GEKMAN  AND   SCANDINAVIAN.  23 

In  the  modern  Danish  and  Swedish,  the  passive  is 
still  preserved,  but  without  the  final  t.  In  the  older 
stages  of  Icelandic,  on  the  other  hand,  the  termination 
was  not  -st  but  -sc  ;  which  -sc  grew  out  of  the  reflective 
pronoun  sik.  With  these  phenomena  the  Scandinavian 
languages  give  us  the  evolution  and  development  of  a 
passive  voice ;  wherein  we  have  the  following  series  of 
changes  : — 1.  the  reflective  pronoun  coalesces  with  the 
verb,  whilst  the  sense  changes  from  that  of  a  reflective 
to  that  of  a  middle  verb  ;  2.  the  c  changes  to  t,  whilst 
the  middle  sense  passes  into  a  passive  one ;  3.  t  is 
dropped  from  the  end  of  the  word,  and  the  expression  that 
was  once  reflective  then  becomes  strictly  passive. 

Now  the  Saxons  have  no  passive  voice  at  all.  That 
they  should  have  one  originating  like  that  of  the  Scandi- 
navians was  impossible,  inasmuch  as  they  had  no  reflective 
pronoun,  and,  consequently,  nothing  to  evolve  it  from. 


24  ELEMENTS  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER    V. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. GERMANIC  ELEMENTS. 

THE  ANGLES. 

§  42.  THE  language  of  England  has  been  formed  out 
of  three  elements. 

a.  Elements  referable  to  the  original  British  popula- 
tion, and  derived  from  times  anterior  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
invasion. 

b.  Anglo-Saxon,  Germanic,  or  imported  elements. 

c.  Elements  introduced  since   the  Anglo-Saxon   con- 
quest. 

§  43.  Each  of  these  requires  a  special  analysis,  but 
that  of  the  second  will  be  taken  first,  and  form  the  con- 
tents of  the  present  chapter. 

All  that  we  have  at  present  learned  concerning  the  Ger- 
manic invaders  of  England,  is  the  geographical  area  which 
they  originally  occupied.  How  far,  however,  it  was  sim- 
ple Saxons  who  conquered  England  single-handed,  or  how 
far  the  particular  Saxon  Germans  were  portions  of  a 
complex  population,  requires  further  investigation.  Were 
the  Saxons  one  division  of  the  German  population, 
whilst  the  Angles  were  another?  or  were  the  Angles  a 
section  of  the  Saxons,  so  that  the  latter  was  a  generic 
term  including  the  former  ?  Again,  although  the  Saxon 
invasion  may  be  the  one  which  has  had  the  greatest 
influence,  and  drawn  the  most  attention,  why  may  there 
not  have  been  separate  and  independent  migrations,  the 


ELEMENTS   OF  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  25 

effects  and  record  of  which  have,  in  the  lapse  of  time, 
become  fused  with  those  of  the  more  important  divisions  ? 

§  44.  The  Angles ;  who  were  they  ?  and  what  was 
their  relation  to  the  Saxons  7 — The  first  answer  to  this 
question  embodies  a  great  fact  in  the  way  of  internal  evi- 
dence, viz.,  that  they  were  the  people  from  whom  Eng- 
land derives  the  name  it  bears  =  Angle  land,  i.  e.,  land  of 
the  Angles.  Our  language  too  is  English,  i.  e.,  Angle. 
Whatever,  then,  they  may  have  been  on  the  Continent, 
they  were  a  leading  section  of  the  invaders  here.  Why 
then  has  their  position  in  our  inquiries  been  hitherto  so 
subordinate  to  that  of  the  Saxons  ?  It  is  because  their 
importance  and  preponderance  are  not  so  manifest  in  Ger- 
many as  we  infer  them  to  have  been  in  Britain.  Nay 
more,  their  historical  place  amongst  the  nations  of  Ger- 
many, is  both  insignificant  and  uncertain  ;  indeed,  it  will 
be  seen  from  the  sequel,  that  in  and  of  themselves  we 
know  next  to  nothing  about  them,  knowing  them  only  in 
their  relations,  i.  e.,  to  ourselves  and  to  tEe  Saxons. 

§  45.  Although  they  are  the  section  of  the  immigra- 
tion which  gave  the  name  to  England,  and,  as  such,  the 
preponderating  element  in  the  eyes  of  the  present  English, 
they  were  not  so  in  the  eyes  of  the  original  British ;  who 
neither  knew  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  nor  know  now, 
of  any  other  name  for  their  German  enemies  but  Saxon. 
And  Saxon  is  the  name  by  which  the  present  English 
are  known  to  the  Welsh,  Armorican,  and  Gaelic  Celts. 

Welsh Saxon. 

Armorican Soson. 

Gaelic Sassenach. 

§  46.  Although  they  are  the  section  of  the  immigra- 
tion which  gave  the  name  to  England,  &c.,  they  were 
quite  as  little  Angles  as  Saxons  in  the  eyes  of  foreign 

3 


26  GERMANIC   ELEMENTS. 

cotemporary  writers ;  since  the  expression  Saxonicz  trans- 
marince,  occurs  as  applied  to  England. 

§  47.  Who  were  the  Angles  ? — Although  they  are  the 
section  of  the  immigration  which  gave  the  name  to  Eng- 
land^ &c.,  the  notices  of  them  as  Germans  in  Germany, 
are  extremely  limited. 

Extract  from  Tacitus. — This  merely  connects  them 
with  certain  other  tribes,  and  affirms  the  existence  of 
certain  religious  ordinances  common  to  them : — 

"  Contra  Langobardos  paucitas  nobilitat :  plurimis  ac 
valentissimis  nationibus  cincti,  non  per  obsequium  sed 
prceliis  et  periclitando  tuti  sunt.  Reudigni  deinde,  et 
Aviones,  et  Angli,  et  Varini,  et  Eudoses,  et  Suardones, 
et  Nuithones,  fluminibus  aut  silvis  muniuntur :  nee  quid- 
quam  notabile  in  singulis,  nisi  quod  in  commune  Herthum, 
id  est,  Terrain  matrem  colunt,  eamque  intervenire  rebus 
hominum,  invehi  populis,  arbitrantur.  Est  in  insula 
Oceani  Castum  nemus,  dicatumque  in  eo  vehiculum,  veste 
contectum,  attingere  uni  sacerdoti  concessum.  Is  adesse 
penetrali  deam  intelligit,  vectamque  bobus  feminis  multa 
cum  veneratione  prosequitur.  Lasti  tune  dies,  festa  loca, 
quaecunique  adventu  hospitioque  dignatur.  Non  bella 
ineunt,  non  arma  summit,  clausum  omne  ferrum ;  pax  et 
quies  tune  tantum  nota,  tune  tanturn  arnata,  donee  idem 
sacerdos  satiatam  conversatione  mortalium  dearn  templo 
reddat ;  mox  vehiculum  et  vestes,  et,  si  credere  velis, 
numen  ipsum  secreto  lacu  abluitur.  Servi  ministrant, 
quos  statim  idem  lacus  haurit.  Arcanus  hinc  terror, 
sanctaque  ignorantia,  quid  sit  id,  quod  tantum  perituri 
vident."* 

Extract  from  Ptolemy. — This  connects  the  Angles 

with  the  Suevi,  and  Langobardi,  and  places  them  on  the 

Middle  Elbe. — 'JEi/ro?  KOA,  ^eaoyeiwv 

*  De  Mor.  Germ.  40. 


OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  27 


ecrri  TO  re  TWV  ^ovrjfiwv  Twv  'AyyeiKcov,  01  elaiv  dvaro\i- 
fcwrepoi,  TWV  AayyoftdpScov,  dvareivovres  TTpo?  ra?  apfcrovs 
fJ<€%pi'  TWV  fAecrcov  rov  *'A\/3i,o<;  Trora/xou. 

Extract  from  Procopius.  —  For  this  see  §  55. 

Heading  of  a  law  referred  to  the  age  of  Charle- 
magne. —  This  connects  them  with  the  Werini  (Varhi)  and 
the  Thuringians  —  "Incipit  lex  Angliorum  et  Werino- 
rum  hoc  est  Thuringormn" 

§  48.  These  notices  agree  in  giving  the  Angles  a  Ger- 
man locality,  and  in  connecting  them  ethnologically,  and 
philologically  with  the  Germans  of  Germany.  And 
such  was,  undoubtedly,  the  case.  Nevertheless,  it  may 
be  seen  from  §  15  that  a  Danish  origin  has  been  assign- 
ed to  them. 

The  exact  Germanic  affinities  of  the  Angles  are,  how- 
ever, difficult  to  ascertain,  since  the  tribes  with  which  they 
are  classed  are  differently  classed.  This  we  shall  see  by 
asking  the  following  questions  :  — 

§  49.  What  were  the  Langobardi,  with  whom  the 
Angles  were  connected  by  Tacitus  7  The  most  important 
fact  to  be  known  concerning  them  is,  that  the  general 
opinion  is  in  favour  of  their  having  belonged  to  either  the 
jET^A-German,  or  Moeso-  Gothic  division,  rather  than  to 
the  Low. 

§  50.  What  were  the  Suevi,  with  whom  the  Angles 
were  connected  by  Tacitus?  The  most  important  fact 
to  be  known  concerning  them  is,  that  the  general  opinion 
is  in  favour  of  their  having  belonged  to  either  the  High- 
German  or  Moeso-Gothic  division  rather  than  to  the 
Low. 

§  51.  What  were  the  Werini,  with  whom  the  Angles 
were  connected  in  the  Leges  Anglornm  et  Werinorum  ? 
Without  having  any  particular  data  for  connecting  the 
Werini  (Varni,  Ovdpvoi)  with  either  the  High-German,  or 


28  GERMANIC   ELEMENTS. 

the  Moeso-Gothic  divisions,  there  are  certain  facts  in  favour 
of  their  being  Slavonic. 

§  52.  What  were  the  Tkuringians,  with  whom  the 
Angles  are  connected  in  the  Leges  Anglorum  ?  Ger- 
manic in  locality,  and  most  probably  allied  to  the  Goths 
of  Moesia  in  language.  If  not,  High-Germans. 

§  53.  Of  the  Reudigni,  Eudoses,  Nuithones,  Suar- 
dones,  and  Aviones,  too  little  is  known  in  detail  to  make 
the  details  an  inquiry  of  importance. 

§  54.  The  reader  has  now  got  a  general  view  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  position  of  the  Angles,  as  a  German 
tribe,  is  complicated  by  conflicting  statements ;  statements 
which  connect  them  with  (probably)  /#g7i-German  Thu- 
ringians,  Suevi,  and  Langobardi,  and  with  (probably)  Sla- 
vonic Werini,  or  Varni ;  whereas  in  England,  they  are 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  Low-German  Sax- 
ons. In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  the  only 
safe  fact  seems  to  be,  that  of  the  common  relation  of 
both  Angles  and  Saxons  to  the  present  English  of  Eng- 
land. 

This  brings  the  two  sections  within  a  very  close  de- 
gree of  affinity,  and  makes  it  probable,  that,  just  as  at 
present,  descendants  of  the  Saxons  are  English  (Angle] 
in  Britain,  so,  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  ancestors 
of  the  Angles  were  Saxons  in  Germany.  Why,  however, 
the  one  name  preponderated  on  the  Continent,  and  the 
other  in  England  is  difficult  to  ascertain. 

§  55.  The  Frisians  have  been  mentioned  as  a  German- 
ic population  likely  to  have  joined  in  the  invasion  of  Brit- 
ain ;  the  presumption  in  favor  of  their  having  done  so 
arising  from  their  geographical  position. 

There  is,  however,  something  more  than  mere  pre- 
sumption upon  this  point. 

Archbishop  Usher,  amongst  the  earlier  historians,  and 


OF   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  29 

Mr.  Kemble  amongst  those  of  the  present  day,  as  well 
as  other  intermediate  investigators,  have  drawn  attention 
to  certain  important  notices  of  them. 

The  main  facts   bearing  upon  this  question  are  the 
following : — 

1.  Hengist,  according  to  some  traditions,  was  a  Frisian 
hero. 

2.  Procopius*6    wrote    as   follows : — Bpirriav   Se   rr)v 
vfjcrov  e^vrj  rpla  TroKvav^pwiroTara  €%ovai,  /3a<rtXeu?  re 
elf  avrwv  eKacrTW  €$6<TTr)Kev,  ovofiara  Se  Kelrai  rot? 

'AjyfiiM  re  Kal  3>p'icraoves  Kal  ol  rfj  vrjcrw  O 
Bptrrtoves.     Too-avr?)  Se  77  rwvSe  rwv  &V&V  7ro\vav- 
ovcra  ware  ava  irav  ero?  Kara 

evoi,  ^vv  <yvvai£i  /ecu  Tranrlv  e? 
Procop.  B.  GK  iv.  20. 

3.  In  the  Saxon  Chronicle  we  find  the  following  pas- 
sage : — "  That  same  year,  the  armies  from  among  the  East- 
Anglians,   and  from    among   the    North-Humbrians,  ha- 
rassed the  land  of  the  West-Saxons  chiefly,  most  of  all 
by  their  'aescs,'  which  they  had   built   many  years  be- 
fore.    Then  king  Alfred   commanded   long  ships   to   be 
built  to  oppose  the  aescs ;  they  were  full-nigh  twice   as 
long  as  the  others ;  some  had  sixty  oars,  and  some  had 
more ;    they   were   both  swifter   and   steadier,   and   also 
higher  than  the  others.     They  were  shapen  neither  like 
the  Frisian  nor  the  Danish,  but  so  as  it  seemed  to  him 
that  they  would  be  most  efficient.     Then  some  time  in 
the  same  year,  there  came  six  ships  to  Wight,  and  there 
did  much  harm,  as  well  as  in  Devon,  and  elsewhere  along 
the  sea  coast.     Then  the  king  commanded  nine  of  the  new 
ships  to  go  thither,  and  they  obstructed  their  passage  from 
the  port  towards  the  outer  sea.     Then  went  they  with 
three  of  their  ships  out  against  them ;  and  three  lay  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  port  in  the  dry :  the  men  were  gone 


30  ELEMENTS  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

from  them  ashore.  Then  took  they  two  of  the  three  ships 
at  the  outer  part  of  the  port,  and  killed  the  men,  and  the 
other  ship  escaped;  in  that  also  the  men  were  killed 
except  five ;  they  got  away  because  the  other  ships  were 
aground.  They  also  were  aground  very  disadvantage- 
ously,  three  lay  aground  on  that  side  of  the  deep  on  which 
the  Danish  ships  were  aground,  and  all  the  rest  upon 
the  other  side,  so  that  no  one  of  them  could  get  to  the 
others.  But  when  the  water  had  ebbed  many  furlongs 
from  the  ships,  then  the  Danish  men  went  from  their 
three  ships  to  the  other  three  which  were  left  by  the  tide 
on  their  side,  and  then  they  there  fought  against  them. 
There  was  slain  Lucumon  the  king's  reeve,  and  Wulf- 
heard  the  Frisian,  and  ^Ebbe  the  Frisian,  and  ^thel- 
here  the  Frisian,  and  ^Ethelferth  the  king's  'geneat,' 
and  of  all  the  men,  Frisians  and  English,  seventy-two ; 
and  of  the  Danish  men  one  hundred  and  twenty." 

§  56.  I  believe  then,  that,  so  far  from  the  current  ac- 
counts being  absolutely  correct,  in  respect  to  the  Ger- 
manic elements  of  the  English  population,  the  Jutes,  as 
mentioned  by  Beda,  formed  no  part  of  it,  whilst  the  Fris- 
ians, not  so  mentioned,  were  a  real  constituent  therein  ; 
besides  which,  there  may,  very  easily,  have  been  other 
Germanic  tribes,  though  in  smaller  proportions. 


STRUCTURE  OF  CELTIC  TONGUES.  31 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  CELTIC  STOCK  OF  LANGUAGES,  AND  THEIR  RELATIONS 
TO  THE  ENGLISH. 

§  57.  THE  languages  of  Great  Britain  at  the  invasion 
of  Julius  Caesar  were  of  the  Celtic  stock. 

Of  the  Celtic  stock  there  are  two  branches. 

1.  The  British  or  Cambrian  branch,  represented  by 
the  present  Welsh,  and  containing,  besideSj  the  Cornish 
of  Cornwall  (lately  extinct),  and  the  Armorican  of  the 
French  province  of  Brittany.     It  is  almost  certain  that 
the  old  British,  the  ancient  language  of  Gaul,  and  the 
Pictish  were  of  this  branch. 

2.  The  Gaelic  or  Erse  branch,  represented  by  the 
present  Irish  Gaelic,  and  containing,  besides,  the  Gaelic 
of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  the  Manks  of  the  Isle 
of  Man. 

§  58.  Taken  altogether  the  Celtic  tongues  form  a 
very  remarkable  class.  As  compared  with  those  of  the 
Gothic  stock  they  are  marked  by  the  following  charac- 
teristics : — 

The  scantiness  of  the  declension  of  Celtic  nouns. — In 
Irish  there  is  a  peculiar  form  for  the  dative  plural,  as 
cos  =foot,  cos-aibh  =  to  feet  (ped-ibus) ;  and  beyond  this 
there  is  nothing  else  whatever  in  the  way  of  case,  as 
found  in  the  German,  Latin,  Greek,  and  other  tongues. 
Even  the  isolated  form  in  question  is  not  found  in  the 


32  STBUCTUKE   OF   CELTIC   TOXGUES. 

Welsh  and  Breton.     Hence  the  Celtic  tongues  are  pre- 
eminently uninflected  in  the  way  of  declension. 

§  59.  The  agglutinate  character  of  their  verbal  in- 
flections. —  In  Welsh  the  pronouns  for  we,  ye,  and  they, 
are  ni,  chwyi,  and  hwynt  respectively.  In  Welsh  also 
the  root  =  love  is  car.  As  conjugated  in  the  plural  num- 
ber this  is  — 

&m-amus. 


&m-ant. 

Now  the  -wn,  -ych,  and  -ant.  of  the  persons  of  the  verhs 
are  the  personal  pronouns,  so  that  the  inflection  is  really 
a  verb  and  a  pronoun  in  a  state  of  agglutination  ;  i.  e., 
in  a  state  where  the  original  separate  existence  of  the 
two  sorts  of  words  is  still  manifest.  This  is  probably 
the  case  with  languages  in  general.  The  Celtic,  how- 
ever, has  the  peculiarity  of  exhibiting  it  in  an  unmis- 
takable manner  ;  showing,  as  it  were,  an  inflection  in  the 
process  of  formation,  and  (as  such)  exhibiting  an  early 
stage  of  language. 

§  60.  The  system  of  initial  mutations.  —  The  Celtic, 
as  has  been  seen,  is  deficient  in  the  ordinary  means  of 
expressing  case.  How  does  it  make  up  for  this  ?  Even 
thus.  The  noun  changes  its  initial  letter  according  to 
its  relation  to  the  other  words  of  the  sentence.  Of 
course  this  is  subject  to  rule.  As,  however,  I  am  only 
writing  for  the  sake  of  illustrating  in  a  general  way  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Celtic  tongues,  the  following  table, 
from  Prichard's  "  Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations," 
is  sufficient. 

Car,  a  kinsman.  3.  form,  Ei  char,  her  kinsman. 

1.  form,  Car  agos,  a  near  kins-          4.  Vy    nghar,     my    kins- 

man. man. 

2.  Ei  gar,  his  kinsman. 


STRUCTURE    OF   CELTIC  TONGUES. 


33 


Tad,  a  father. 

1.  form,    Tad    y    plentyn,     the 

child's  father. 
Ei  dad,  his  father. 
Ei  thad,  her  father. 
Vy  nhad,  my  father. 


Bara, 

1.  form,    Bara 


cann, 


head  of 


2. 

3. 

4. 

Pen,  a 

1.  form,  Pen  gwr, 

a  man. 

2.  Ei  ben,  Ais  Aeac?. 

3.  Ei  phen,  her  head. 

4.  Vy  mhen,  my  head. 
Gwas,  a  servant. 

1.  form,  Gwas  fydhlon,  a  faith- 

ful servant. 

2.  Ei  was,  his  servant. 

3.  Vy    ngwas,    my     ser- 

vant. 
Duw,  a  god. 

1.  form,  Duw  trugarog,  a 

ciful  god. 

2.  Ei  dhuw,  his  god. 
8.                Vy  nuw,  my  god. 


2.  Ei  vara,  A 

3.  Vy  mara,  my  bread. 
Lhaw,  a  hand. 

1.  form,   Lhaw    wenn,    a   white 

hand. 

2.  Ei  law,  his  hand. 
Mam,  a  mother. 

1.  form,    Mam    dirion,    a    tender 

mother. 

2.  Eivam,  his  mother. 
Rhwyd,  a  net. 

1.  form,   Rhwyd   lawn,    a  full 

net. 

2.  Ei  rwyd,  his  net. 
From  the  Erse. 

Suil,  an  eye. 

1.  form,  Suil. 

2.  A  hull,  his  eye. 
Slainte,  health. 

2.  form,  Do  hlainte,  your  health. 


§  61.  The  Celtic  tongues  have  lately  received  especial 
illustration  from  the  researches  of  Mr.  Garnett.  Amongst 
others,  the  two  following  points  are  particularly  investi- 
gated by  him: — 

1.  The  affinities  of  the  ancient  language  of  Gaul. 

2.  The  affinities  of  the  Pictish  language  or  dialect. 

§  62.  The  ancient  language  of  Gaul  Cambrian. — 
The  evidence  in  favour  of  the  ancient  language  of  Gaul 
being  Cambrian  rather  than  Gaelic,  lies  in  the  following 
facts : — 

The  old  Gallic  glosses  are  more  Welsh  than  Gaelic. 

a.  Petorritum  =  a  four-wheeled  carriage,  from  the 
Welsh,  peder—four,  and  rhod=a  wheel.  The  Gaelic 


34  STRUCTURE   OF   CELTIC   TONGUES. 

for  four  is   ceathair,    and  the   Gaelic  compound  would 
have  been  different. 

b.  Pempedula,  the  cinque-foil,  from  the  Welsh  pump 
=five,  and  dalen  =  a  leaf.     The  Gaelic  for  Jive  is  cuig, 
and  the  Gaelic  compound  would  have  been  different. 

c.  Candetum  =  a  measure  of  100  feet,  from  the  Welsh 
cant  =  100.     The  Gaelic  for  a  hundred  is  cead,  and  the 
Gaelic  compound  would  have  been  different. 

d.  Epona  =  the  goddess  of  horses.    In  the  old  Armori- 
can  the  root  ep  =  horse.     The  Gaelic  for  a  horse  is  each. 

e.  The  evidence  from  the  names  of  geographical  locali- 
ties in  Gaul,  both  ancient   and  modern,  goes   the   same 
way :  Nantuates,  Nantouin,  Nanteuil,  are  derived  from 
the  Welsh  nant  =  a  valley,  a  word  unknown  in  Gaelic. 

/.  The  evidence  of  certain  French  provincial  words, 
which  are  Welsh  and  Armorican  rather  than  Erse  or 
Gaelic. 

§  63.  The  Pictish  most  probably  Cambrian. — The 
evidence  in  favour  of  the  Pictish  being  Cambrian  rather 
than  Gaelic  lies  in  the  following  facts  : 

a.  When  St.   Columbanus    preached,  whose   mother- 
tongue  was  Irish  Gaelic,  he  used  an  interpreter.     This 
shows  the  difference  between  the  Pict  and  Gaelic.     What 
follows  shows  the  affinity  between  the  Pict  and  Welsh. 

b.  A  manuscript  in  the  Colbertine  library  contains  a 
list  of  Pictish  kings  from  the  fifth  century  downwards. 
These  names    are   more  Welsh  than  Gaelic.      Tar  an  = 
thunder  in  Welsh.      Uven  is  the   Welsh    Owen.      The 
first  syllable  in  Talorg  (=  forehead)  is  the  tal  in   Tal- 
haiarn  =  iron  forehead,    Taliessin  =  splendid  forehead, 
Welsh  names.     Wrgust  is  nearer  to  the  Welsh  Gwrgust 
than  to   the   Irish  Fergus.      Finally,   Drust,  Drostan, 

Wrad,  Necton,  closely  resemble  the  Welsh  Trwst,  Trwst- 


STKUCTUBE   OF   CELTIC   TONGUES.  35 

an,  Gwriad,  Nwython.    Cineod  and  Domhnall  (Kenneth 
and  Donnell)  are  the  only  true  Erse  forms  in  the  list. 

c.  The  only  Pictish  common  name  extant  is  the  well- 
known  compound  pen  val,  which  is,  in  the  oldest  MS. 
of  Beda,  peann  fahel.     This  means  caput  valli,  and  is 
the  name  for  the  eastern  termination  of  the  Vallum  of 
Antoninus.     Herein  pen  is  unequivocally  Welsh,  meaning 
head.     It  is.  an  impossible  form  in  Gaelic.     Pal,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  apparently  Gaelic,  the  Welsh  for  a  ram- 
part being  gwall.     Pal,  however,  occurs  in  Welsh  also, 
and  means  inclosure. 

The  evidence  just  indicated  is  rendered  nearly  con- 
clusive by  an  interpolation,  apparently  of  the  twelfth 
century,  of  the  Durham  MS.  of  Nennius,  whereby  it  is 
stated  that  the  spot  in  question  was  called  in  Gaelic 
Cenail.  Now  Cenail  is  the  modern  name  Kinneil,  and 
it  is  also  a  Gaelic  translation  of  the  Pict  pen  val,  since 
cean  is  the  Gaelic  for  head,  and  fhail  for  rampart  or 
wall.  If  the  older  form  were  Gaelic,  the  substitution, 
or  translation,  would  hare  been  superfluous. 

d.  The  name  of  the  Ochil  Hills  in  Perthshire  is  better 
explained  from  the  Pict  uchel  =  high,  than  from  the  Gaelic 
uasal. 

e.  Bryneich,  the  British  form  of  the  province  Bernicia, 
is   better  explained   by  the  Welsh  bryn  =  ridge   (kitty 
country],   than    by   any   word    in   Gaelic. — Garnett,    in 
"  Transactions  of  Philological  Society." 


36  LANGUAGES  DERIVED 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    ANGLO-NORMAN,    AND    THE    LANGUAGES    OF    THE    CLASSICAL 
STOCK. 

§  64.  THE  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome  belong  to 
one  and  the  same  stock. 

The  Greek  and  its  dialects,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
constitute  the  Greek  of  the  Classical  stock. 

The  Latin  in  all  its  dialects,  the  old  Italian  languages 
allied  to  it,  and  the  modern  tongues  derived  from  the 
Roman,  constitute  the  Latin  branch  of  the  Classical  stock. 

Now,  although  the  Greek  dialects  are  of  only  second- 
ary importance  in  the  illustration  of  the  history  of  the 
English  language,  the  Latin  elements  require  a  special 
consideration. 

This  is  because  the  Norman  French,  introduced  into 
England  by  the  battle  of  Hastings,  is  a  language  derived 
from  the  Roman,  and  consequently  a  language  of  the 
Latin  branch  of  the  Classical  stock. 

§  65.  The  Latin  language  overspread  the  greater  part 
of  the  Roman  empire.  It  supplanted  a  multiplicity  of 
aboriginal  languages ;  just  as  the  English  of  North 
America  has  supplanted  the  aboriginal  tongues  of  the 
native  Indians,  and  just  as  the  Russian  is  supplanting 
those  of  Siberia  and  Kamskatka. 

Sometimes  the  war  that  the  Romans  carried  on  against 
the  old  inhabitants  was  a  war  of  extermination.  In  this 
case  the  original  language  was  superseded  at  once.  In 


FROM  THE   LATIN.  37 

other  cases  their  influence  was  introduced  gradually.  In 
this  case  the  influence  of  the  original  language  was 
greater  and  more  permanent. 

Just  as  in  the  United  States  the  English  came  in 
contact  with  an  American,  whilst  in  New  Holland  it 
comes  in  contact  with  an  Australian  language,  so  was 
the  Latin  language  of  Rome  engrafted,  sometimes  on  a 
Celtic,  sometimes  on  a  Gothic,  and  sometimes  on  some 
other  stock.  The  nature  of  the  original  language  must 
always  be  borne  in  mind. 

From  Italy,  its  original  seat,  the  Latin  was  extended 
in  the  following  chronological  order  : — 

1.  To  the  Spanish  Peninsula ;    where  it  overlaid  or 
was  engrafted  on   languages   allied  to  the  present  Bis- 
cayan. 

2.  To  Gaul,  or  France,  where  it  overlaid  or  was  en- 
grafted on  languages  of  the  Celtic  stock. 

3.  To  Dacia  and  Pannonia  where  it  overlaid  or  was 
engrafted  on  a  language  the  stock  whereof  is  undeter- 
mined, but  which   was,  probably,  Sarmatian.      The   in- 
troduction of  the  Latin  into  Dacia  and  Pannonia  took  place 
in  the  time  of  Trajan. 

§  66.  From  these  different  introductions  of  the  Latin 
into  different  countries  we  have  the  following  modern 
languages — 1st  Italian,  2nd  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  3rd 
French,  4th  Wallachian  ;  to  which  must  be  added  a  5th, 
the  Romanese  of  part  of  Switzerland. 

Specimen  of  the  Romanese. 

Luke  xv.  11. 

11.  tfn  Hum  veva  dus  Filgs  : 

12.  Ad  ilg  juven  da  quels  schet  alg  Bab,  "Bab  mi  dai  la  Part  de  la 
Rauba  c'  aud'  a  mi :  ad  el  parche  or  ad  els  la  Rauba. 

13.  A  bucca  bears  Gis  suenter,  cur  ilg  Filg  juven  vet  tut  mess  an- 


38  LANGUAGES  DERIVED 

semel,  scha  tila  '1  navent  en  iinna  Terra  dalunsch :  a  lou  sfiget  el  tut  sia 
Rauba  cun  viver  senza  spargn. 

14.  A  cur  el  vet  tut  sfaig,  scha  vangit  ei  en  quella  Terra  un  grond 
Fumaz :  ad  el  antschavet  a  ver  basengs. 

15.  Ad  el  ma,  a :  sa  plide  enn  un  Burgeis  da  quella  Terra  ;  a  quel  ilg 
tarmatet  or  sin  ses  Beins  a  parchirar  ils  Pores. 

16.  Ad  el  grigiava  dad  amplanir  sieu  Venter  cun  las  Criscas  ch'  ils 
Pores  malgiavan  ;    mo  nagin  Igi  deva. 

17.  Mo  el  ma  en  sasez  a  schet:  "Quonts  Fumelgs  da  mieu  Bab  han 
budonza  da  Pann,  a  jou  miei  d'  fom ! " 

18.  "  Jou  vi  lavar  si,  ad  ir  tier  mieu  Bab,  e  vi  gir  a  Igi :  '  Bab,  jou  hai 
faig  puccau  ancunter  ilg  Tscbiel  ad  avont  <#i ; 

19.  " '  A  sunt  bucca  pli  vangonts  da  vangir  numnaus  tieu  Filg ;  fai  mei 
esser  sco  iin  da  tes  Fumelgs.' " 

Specimen  of  the  Wallachian. 

Luke  XT.  11. 

11.  Un  om  evea  doi  fee  ori. 

12.  Shi  a  zis  c'el  mai  tinr  din  ei  tatlui  su:  tat,  dmi  partea  c'e  mi  se 
kade  de  avucie :  shi  de  a  imprcit  lor  avuciea. 

13.  Shi  nu  dup  inulte  zile,  adunint  toate  fee  orul  eel  mai  tinr,  s'a 
dus  intr  'o  car  departe,  shi  akolo  a  rsipit  toat  avuciea  ca,  viecuind  intr 
dezmierdri. 

14.  Shi  keltuind  el  toate,  c'a  fkut  foamete  mare  intr*  ac'eacar:  shi 
el  a  inc'eput  a  se  lipsi. 

15.  Shi  mergina   c'a  lipit   de  unul   din  Ikuitorii  crii   ac'eia:   si  '1  a 
trimis  pre  el  la  earinide  sale  c  pask  porc'il. 

16.  Shi  doria  c  'shi  sature   pinctec'ele   su  de  roshkobele  c'e  minka 
porc'il !  shi  nimini  nu  I  da  lui. 

17.  lar  viind  intru  sine,  a  zis;  Mci  argacl  ai  tatlui  mieu  sint  indes- 
tulaci  de  piine,  iar  eu  pieiii  de  foame. 

18.  Skula-m-viou,   shi  m'  voiu   duc'e  la  tata  mieu,   shi  viou  zic'e 
lui: 

19.  Tat,  greshit-am  la  e'er  slu'  inaintea  ta,  shi  nu  mai  sint  vrednik  a 
m  kema  fiul  tu ;  fm  ka  pre  unul  din  argacil  ti. 

§  67.  Such  is  the  general  view  of  the  languages  de- 
rived from  the  Latin,  i.  e.,  of  the  languages  of  the  Latin 
branch  of  the  Classical  stock. 


FKOM   THE   LATIN.  39 

The  French  requires  to  be  more  minutely  exhibited. 

Between  the  provincial  French  of  the  north  and  the 
provincial  French  of  the  south,  there  is  a  difference,  at 
the  present  day,  at  least  of  dialect,  and  perhaps  of  lan- 
guage. This  is  shown  by  the  following  specimens :  the 
first  from  the  canton  of  Arras,  on  the  confines  of  Flanders  ; 
the  second  from  the  department  of  Var,  in  Provence. 
The  date  of  each  is  A.D.  1807. 

I. 

Luke  xv.  11. 

11.  Ain  homme  avoiiait  deeux  garcheons. 

12.  L'pus  jone  dit  a  sain  pere,  "Main  pere,  bailie  m'chou  qui  doiio 
me  Vv'nir  ed  vous  bien,"  et  lue  pere  lea  partit  sain  bien. 

13.  Ain  n'sais   yur,   tro,   quate,   cheon  jours  apres   1'pus  tio  d'cnes 
deeux    efeans   oyant  r'cuelle   tout   s'n'   heritt'main,    s'ot'   ainvoye   dains 
nain  pahis  gramain  lotion,  du   qu'il  Achilla  tout  s'n'  argint  ain  fageant 
1'braingand  dains  die's  cabarets. 

14.  Abord  qu'il  o  eu  tout  bu,  tout  mie  et  tout  dre!6,  il  o  v'nu  adonc 
dains  ch'  pahis  lo  ainn'  famaine  cruiielle,  et  i  c'mainchouait  d'avoir  fon-ye 
d'  pon-ye  (i.  e.  faim  de  pain). 

II. 

THE   SAME. 

11.  Tin  home'  avi6  dous  enfans. 

12.  Lou  plus  pichoun  diguet  a  son  paire,  "Moun  paire,  dounas  mi  ce 
qu6  mi  reven  de  vouastre  ben  ;"  lou  paire  faguet  lou  partage  de  tout  ce 
que  poussedavo. 

13.  Paou  de  jours  apres,  lou  pichoun  vendet  tout  se  que  soun  pair6  li 
avi6  desamparat,  et  s'en  an6t  dins  un  pais  fourco  luench,  ounte  dissipet  tout 
soun  ben  en  debaucho. 

14.  Quand  agu6t  tou  arcaba,  uno  grosso  famino  arribet  dins  aqueou 
pais  et,  leou,  si  veguet  reduech  a  la  dgrniero  misero. 

Practically  speaking,  although  in  the  central  parts  of 
France  the  northern  and  southern  dialects  melt  into  each 


40  LANGUAGES   DERIVED 

other,  the  Loire  may  be  considered  as  a  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  two  languages ;  the  term  language  being 
employed  because,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  whatever  may 
be  their  real  difference,  their  northern  tongue  and  the 
southern  tongue  were  dealt  with  not  as  separate  dialects, 
but  as  distinct  languages — the  southern  being  called  Pro- 
ven9al,  the  northern  Norman-French. 

Of  these  two  languages  (for  so  they  will  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  be  called,  for  the  sake  of  convenience)  the 
southern,  or  Proven9al,  approaches  the  dialects  of  Spain ; 
the  Valencian  of  Spain  and  the  Catalonian  of  Spain 
being  Provengal  rather  than  standard  Spanish  or  Cas- 
tilian. 

The  southern  French  is  sometimes  called  the  Langue 
d'Oc,  and  sometimes  the  Limousin. 

§  68.  The  Norman-French,  spoken  from  the  Loire 
to  the  confines  of  Flanders,  and  called  also  the  Langue 
d'Oyl,  differed  from  the  Provencal  in  (amongst  others)  the 
following  circumstances. 

1.  It  was  of  later  origin  ;  the  southern  parts  of  Gaul 
having  been  colonized  at  an  early  period  by  the  Romans. 

2.  It  was  in  geographical  contact,  not  with  the  allied 
languages  of  Spain,  but  with  the  Gothic  tongues  of  Ger- 
many and  Holland. 

§  69.  It  is  the  Norman-French  that  most  especially 
bears  upon  the  history  of  the  English  language. 

Specimen  from  the  Anglo-Norman  poem  of 
Charlemagne. 

Un  jur  fu  Karleun  a!  Seint-Denis  muster, 
Reout  prise  sa  corune,  en  croiz  seignat  sun  chef, 
E  ad  ceinte  sa  espee  :  li  pons  fuel  d'or  mer. 
Dux  i  out  e  demeines  e  baruns  e  chevalers. 
Li  empereres  reguardet  la  reine  sa  muillers. 


FKOM  THE   LATIN.  41 

Ele  fut  ben  corunee  al  plus  bel  e  as  menz. 
II  la  prist  par  le  poin  desuz  un  oliver, 
De  sa  pleine  parole  la  prist  a  reisuner : 
"  Dame,  veistes  unkes  hume  nul  de  desuz  ceil 
Tant  ben  seist  espee  ne  la  corone  el  chef? 
Uncore  cunquerrei-jo  citez  ot  mun  espeez." 
Cele  ne  fud  pas  sage,  folement  respondeit : 
"  Emperere,"  dist-ele,  trop  vus  poez  preiser. 
"  Uncore  en  sa-jo  un  ki  plus  se  fait  leger, 
Quant  il  porte  conine  entre  ses  chevalers  ; 
Kaunt  il  met  sur  sa  teste,  plus  belement  lui  set" 

In  the  northern  French  we  must  recognise  not  only  a 
Celtic  and  a  Classical,  but  also  a  Gothic  element :  since 
Clovis  and  Charlemagne  were  no  Frenchmen,  but  Ger- 
mans. The  Germanic  element  in  French  has  still  to  be 
determined. 

In  the  northern  French  of  Normandy  there  is  a  second 
Gothic  element,  viz.,  a  Scandinavian  element.  See  §  76. 


J.2  QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  WHAT  are  the  present  languages  of  "Wales,  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Scotch 
Highlands,  and  Ireland  ? 

2.  What  are  the  present  languages  of  Germany  and  Holland  ?     How 
are  they  related  to  the  present  language  of  England  ?     How  to  the  original 
language  of  England  ? 

3.  Enumerate  the  chief  supposed  migrations  from  Germany  to  England, 
giving  (when   possible)  the  date  of  each,  the  particular   German   tribe 
by  which  each  was  undertaken,  and  the  parts  of  Great  Britain  where 
the  different  landings  were  made.     Why  do  I  say  supposed  migrations? 
Criticise,  in  detail,  the  evidence  by  which  they  are  supported,  and  state 
the  extent  to  which  it  is  exceptionable.     Who  was  Beda  ?     What  were  the 
sources  of  his  information  ? 

4.  Give  reasons  for  believing  the  existence  of  Germans  in  England 
anterior  to  A.  D.  447. 

5.  Who  are  the  present  Jutlanders  of  Jutland  ?     Who  the  inhabitants 
of  the  district  called  Auglen  in  Sleswick  ?     What  are  the  reasons  for  con- 
necting these  with  the   Jutes   and   Angles   of  Beda  ?     What  those   for 
denying  such  a  connection  ? 

6.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  termination  -uarii  in  Cant-uarii  and 
Vect-uarii  ?     What  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of  Antiqui  Saxones^ 
Occidentales  Saxones,  Orientales  Saxones,  Meridionales  Saxones  ?     What 
are  the  known  variations  in  the  form  of  the  word  Vectis,  meaning  the 
Isle  of  Wight  ?     What  those  of  the  root  Jut-  as  the  name  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  ? 

7.  Translate    Cantware,    Wihtware,  into   Latin.      How   does  Alfred 
translate  Jute?  ?     How  does  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  ?     What  is  the 
derivation  of  the  name  Carisbrook,  a  town  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  ? 

8.  Take  exception  to  the  opinions  that  Jutes,  from  Jutland,  formed 
part  of  the  Germanic  invasion  of  England ;  or,  rather,  take  exceptions  to 
the  evidence  upon  wliich  that  opinion  is  based. 

9.  From   what  part  of  Germany  were  the  Angles  derived  ?     What 


QUESTIONS.  43 

is  Beda's  ?  what  Ethelweard's  statement  concerning  them  ?  Who  were  the 
Angli  of  Tacitus  ? 

10.  What  is  the  derivation  of  the  word  Mercia  ? 

11.  Give  the  localities  of  the  Old  Saxons,  and  the  Northalbingians. 
Investigate  the  area  occupied  by  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

12. -What  is  the  present  population  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Fries- 
land  ?  What  its  language  ?  What  the  dialects  and  stages  of  that  lan- 
guage? 

13.  What  was  the  language  of  the  Asega-bog,  the  Heliand,  Beowulf, 
Hildubrand  and  Hathubrant,  the  Carolinian  Psalms,  the  Gospels  of  Ulphi- 
las,  and  the  poems  of  Gysbert  Japicx  ? 

14.  Make  a  map  of  Ancient  Germany  and  Scandinavia  according  to 
languages  and  dialects  of  those  two  areas.     Exhibit,  in  a  tabular  form,  the 
languages  of  the  Gothic  stock.     Explain  the  meaning  of  the  words  Gothic, 
and  Mceso-  Gothic,  'and  Platt-Deutsch. 

15.  Analyze  the  Scandinavian  forms  Solen,  Bordet,  and  brennast. 

16.  Exhibit  the  difference  between  the  logical  and  the  historical  ana- 
lysis of  a  language. 

17.  What  are  the  Celtic  names  for  the  English  language  ? 

18.  Enumerate     the     chief    Germanic     populations    connected     by 
ancient  writers  with  the  Angles,  stating   the  Ethnological  relations  of 
each,  and  noticing  the  extent  to  which  they  coincide  with  those  of  the 
Angles. 

19.  What  are  the  reasons  for  believing  that  there  is  a  Frisian  element 
in  the  population  of  England  ? 

20.  Exhibit,  in  a  tabular  form,  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the  Celtic 
stock.     To  which  division  did  the  Gallic  of  ancient  Gaul,  and  the  Pict  be- 
long ?     Support  the  answer  by  reasons.     What  were  the  relations  of  the 
Picts  to  the  Gaelic  inhabitants  of  Scotland?   What  to  the  Lowland  Scotch  ? 
What  to  the  Belgae  ? 

21.  Explain  the  following  words — petorritum,  pempedula,  candetum, 
Epona,  Nantuates,  peann  fahel  and  Bernicia.     What  inferences  do  you 
draw  from  the  derivation  of  them  ? 

22.  Exhibit,  in  a  tabular  form,  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the  Clas- 
sical stock. 

23.  What  is  the  bearing  of  the  statements  of  Tacitus   and  other  an- 
cient writers  respecting  the  following  Germanic  populations  upon  the  eth- 
nological relations  of  the  Angles, — Aviones,  Reudigni,  Suevi,  Langobardi, 
Frisii,  Varini  ? 


44  QUESTIONS. 

24.  What  is  meant  by  the  folloTving  terms,  Provencal,  Langue  d'Oc, 
Langue  d'Oyl,  Limousin,  and  Norman-French  ? 

25.  What  languages,  besides  the  Celtic  and  Latin,  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  French? 


CELTIC    ELEMENTS.  45 


PART  II. 

H1STOKY  AND  ANALYSIS  OF   THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORICAL  AND  LOGICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

§  70.  THE  Celtic  elements  of  the  present  English  fall 
into  five  classes. 

1.  Those  that  are  of  late  introduction,  and  cannot  be 
called   original   and   constituent   parts   of  the   language. 
Some   of  such   are  the   words  flannel,  crowd  (a   fiddle), 
from  the  Cambrian ;    and  kerne  (an   Irish   foot-soldier), 
galore   (enough),   tartan,  plaid,   &c.,   from   the    Gaelic 
branch. 

2.  Those  that  are  originally  common  to  both  the  Celtic 
and  Gothic  stocks.     Some  of  such  are  brother,  mother,  in 
Celtic  brathair,  mathair  ;  the  numerals,  &c. 

3.  Those  that  have  come  to  us  from  the  Celtic,  but 
have  come  to  us  through  the  medium  of  another  language. 
Some  of  such  are  druid  and  bard,  whose  immediate  source 
is,  not  the  Celtic  but  the  Latin. 

4.  Celtic  elements  of  the  Anglo-Norman,  introduced 
into  England  after  the  Conquest,  and  occurring  in  that 
language  as  remains  of  the  original  Celtic  of  Gaul. 


46 


CELTIC   ELEMENTS. 


5.  Those  that  have  been  retained  from  the  original 
Celtic  of  the  island,  and  which  form  genuine  consti- 
tuents of  our  language.  These  fall  into  three  subdivi- 
sions. 

a.  Proper  names — generally  of  geographical  localities  ; 
as  the  Thames,  Kent,  &c. 

b.  Common  names  retained  in  the  provincial  dialects 
of  England,  but  not  retained  in  the  current  language  ;  as 
gwethall  =  household    staff,    and    gwlanen  = flannel    in 
Herefordshire. 

c.  Common  names  retained  in  the  current  language. — 
The  following  list  is  Mr.  Garnett's  : — 


Welsh. 

English.                       Welsh. 

English. 

Basga\vd 

Basket.                      j  Greidell 

Gridia  Gridiron. 

Berfa 

Barrow.                       Grual 

Gruel. 

Botwm 

Button.                        Gwald  (hem, 

\  Welt. 

Bran 

Bran. 

border) 

Clwt 

Clout,  Rag. 

Gwiced  (little 

i  Wicket. 

Crochan 

Crockery. 

door) 

Grog 

Crook,  Hook. 

Gwn 

Gown. 

Cwch 

Cock,  in  Cock  boat. 

Gwyfr 

Wire. 

Cwysed 

Gusset. 

Masg    (stitch 

j.  Jfesh. 

Cjl,  Cyln 

(  Kiln     (Kill,     pro- 
(      vine.). 

in  netting) 
Mattog 

Mattock. 

Dantaeth 

Dainty. 

Mop 

Mop. 

Darn 

Darn. 

Rhail 

)  ^ 

Deentur 

(  Tenter,  in     Tenter- 
•1      hook. 

(fence) 
Rhashg 

j-  Rail. 
[•  Rasher. 

Fflaim 

(  Fleam,     Cattle-Ian- 

(slice) 

(      cet. 

Rhuwch 

Rug. 

Fflaw 

Flaw. 

Sawduria-w 

Solder. 

Ffynnell 

r  F*UTlfl@l 

Syth  (glue) 

Size. 

(air-hole) 

Tacl 

Tackle. 

Gefyn  (fetter) 

Gyve. 

§  71.  Latin  of  the  first  period. — Of  the  Latin  intro- 
duced by  Caesar  and  his  successors,  the  few  words  re- 


DANISH   ELEMENTS.  47 

maining  are  those  that  relate  to  military  affairs ;  viz. 
street  (strata)}  -coin  (as  in  Lincoln  =  Lindi  colonia); 
-cest-  (as  in  Gloucester =glevce  castra)  from  castra. 
The  Latin  words  introduced  between  the  time  of  Caesar 
and  Hengist  may  be  called  the  Latin  of  the  first  period, 
or  the  Latin  of  the  Celtic  period. 

§  72.  The  Anglo-Saxon. — This  is  not  noticed  here, 
because,  from  being  the  staple  of  the  present  language,  it 
is  more  or  less  the  subject  of  the  book  throughout. 

§  73.  The  Danish,  or  Norse. — The  pirates  that  pil- 
laged Britain,  under  the  name  of  Danes,  were  not  exclu- 
sively the  inhabitants  of  Denmark.  Of  the  three  Scan- 
dinavian nations,  the  Swedes  took  the  least  share,  the 
Norwegians  the  greatest,  in  these  invasions. 

The  language  of  the  three  nations  was  the  same ;  the 
differences  being  differences  of  dialect.  It  was  that 
which  is  now  spoken  in  Iceland,  having  been  once  com- 
mon to  Scandinavia  and  Denmark. 

The  Danish  that  became  incorporated  with  our  lan- 
guage, under  the  reign  of  Canute  and  his  sons,  may  be 
called  the  direct  Danish  element,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  indirect  Danish  of  §  76. 

The  determination  of  the  amount  of  Danish  in  English 
is  difficult.  It  is  not  difficult  to  prove  a  word  Scandina- 
vian ;  but,  then,  we  must  also  show  that  it  is  not  Ger- 
man as  well.  A  few  years  back  the  current  opinion  was 
against  the  doctrine  that  there  was  much  Danish  in  Eng- 
land. At  present,  the  tendency  is  rather  the  other  way. 
The  following  facts  are  from  Mr.  Garnett.— "  Phil.  Trans." 
vol.  i. 

1.  The  Saxon  name  of  the  present  town  of  Whitby  in 
Yorkshire  was  Streoneshalch.  The  present  name  Whitby, 
Hvitby,  or  Whifatown,  is  Danish. 


48  DANISH   ELEMENTS. 

2.  The  Saxon  name  of  the  capital  of  Derbyshire  was 
Northweortheg.     The  present  name  is  Danish. 

3.  The  termination  -by  =  town  is  Norse. 

4.  On  a  monument  in  Aldburgh  church,  Holdernesse, 
in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  referred  to  the  age  of 
Edward   the    Confessor,  is   found   the   following   inscrip- 
tion : — 

Ulf  Let  araeran  cyrice  for  hanurn  and  for  Gunthara  saula. 
"  Ulf  bid  rear  the  church  for  him  and  for  the  soul  of  Gunthar." 

Now,  in  this  inscription,  Ulf,  in  opposition  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Wulf,  is  a  Norse  form ;  whilst  hanum  is  a 
Norse  dative,  and  by  no  means  an  Anglo-Saxon  one. — • 
Old  Norse  hanum,  Swedish  honom. 

5.  The  use  of  at  for  to  as  the  sign  of  the  infinitive 
mood   is   Norse,   not  Saxon.      It   is   the   regular   prefix 
in  Icelandic,  Danish,  Swedish,  and   Feroic.      It   is  also 
found  in  the  northern  dialects  of  the   Old  English,  and 
in  the  particular  dialect  of  Westmoreland  at  the  present 
day. 

6.  The  use  of  sum  for  as  ;  e.  g., — swa  sum  we  for- 
give oure  detturs. 

7.  Isolated  words  in  the  northern  dialects  are  Norse 
rather  than  Saxon. 

Provincial.  Common  Dialect.  Norse. 

Braid  Resemble  Braas,  Swed. 

Eldio  Firing  Eld,  Dan. 

Force  Waterfall  Fors,  D.  Swed. 

Gar  Make  Gora,  Sued. 

Gill  Ravine  Gil,  Iceland. 

Greet  Weep  Grata,  Iceland. 

Ket  Carrion  Kiod= flesh,  Dan. 

Lait  Seek  Lede,  Dan. 

Lathe  Barn  Lade,  Dan. 

Lile  Little  Lille,  Dan. 


ANGLO-NORMAN   ELEMENTS.  49 

§  74.  Roman  of  the  second  period. — Of  the  Latin 
introduced  under  the  Christianised  Saxon  sovereigns, 
many  words  are  extant.  The  relate  chiefly  to  ecclesi- 
astical matters,  just  as  the  Latin  of  the  Celtic  period 
bore  upon  military  affairs.  Mynster,  a  minster,  monas- 
terium  ;  portic,  a  porch,  portions;  cluster,  a  cloister, 
claustrum  ;  munuc,  a  monk,  monachus  ;  bisceop,  a  bishop, 
episcopus  ;  arcebisceop,  archbishop,  archiepiscopus  ;  sanct, 
a  saint,  sanctus ;  profost,  a  provost,  propositus ;  pall,  a 
pall,  pallium;  calic,  a  chalice,  calix ;  candel,  a  candle, 
candela;  psalter,  a  psalter,  psalterium  ;  mcesse,  a  mass, 
missa;  pistel,  an  epistle,  epistola;  prcedic-ian,  to  preach, 
prcedicare ;  prof-ian,  to  prove,  probare. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  foreign  plants  and  ani- 
mals: — camell,  a  camel,  camelus  ;  yip,  elephant,  elephas ; 
ficbeam,  fig-tree,  ficus;  feferfuge,  feverfew,  febrifuga; 
peterselige,  parsley,  petroselinum. 

Others  are  the  names  of  articles  of  foreign  origin,  as 
pipor,  pepper,  piper ;  purpur,  purple,  purpura;  pumic- 
stan,  pumicestone,  pumex. 

This  is  the  Latin  of  the  second,  or  Saxon  period. 

§  75.  The  Anglo-Norman  element. — For  practical 
purposes  we  may  say  that  the  French  or  Anglo-Norman 
element  appeared  in  our  language  after  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  A.  D.  1066. 

Previous,  however,  to  that  period  we  find  notices  of  in- 
tercourse between  the  two  countries. 

1.  The  residence  in  England  of  Louis  Outremer. 

2.  Ethelred  II.  married  Emma,  daughter  of  Richard 
Duke  of  Normandy,  and  the  two  children  were  sent  to 
Normandy  for  education. 

3.  Edward   the   Confessor   is   particularly   stated   to 
have  encouraged  French  manners  •  and  the  French  lan- 
guage in  England. 

4 


50  ANGLO-NORMAN  ELEMENTS. 

4.  Ingulphus  of  Croydon  speaks  of  his  own  knowledge 
of  French. 

5.  Harold  passed  some  time  in  Normandy. 

6.  The  French  article  la,  in  the  term  la  Drove,  occurs 
in  a  deed  of  A.  D.  975. 

The  chief  Anglo-Norman  elements  of  our  language  are 
the  terms  connected  with  the  feudal  system,  the  terms 
relating  to  war  and  chivalry,  and  a  great  portion  of  the 
law  terms — duke,  count,  baron,  villain,  service,  chivalry, 
warrant,  esquire,  challenge,  domain,  (fee. 

§  76.  When  we  remember  that  the  word  Norman 
means  man  of  the  north,  that  it  is  a  Scandinavian,  and 
not  a  French  word,  that  it  originated  in  the  invasions  of 
the  followers  of  Rollo  and  and  other  Norwegians,  and  that 
just  as  part  of  England  was  overrun  by  Pagan  bucca- 
neers called  Danes,  part  of  France  was  occupied  by 
similar  Northmen,  we  see  the  likelihood  of  certain  Norse 
words  finding  their  way  into  the  French  language, 
where  they  would  be  superadded  to  its  original  Celtic  and 
Roman  elements. 

The  extent  to  which  this  is  actually  the  case  has  only 
been  partially  investigated.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
some  French  words  are  Norse  or  Scandinavian.  Such, 
for  instance,  are  several  names  of  geographical  localities 
either  near  the  sea,  or  the  river  Seine,  in  other  words, 
within  that  tract  which  was  most  especially  occupied  by 
the  invaders.  As  is  to  be  expected  from  the  genius  of 
the  French  language,  these  words  are  considerably  altered 
in  form.  Thus, 

NORSE.  ENGLISH.  FRENCH. 

Toft  Toft  Tot. 

Beck  Beck  Bee. 

Flot  Fleet*  Fleur,  Ac. 


*  Meaning  ditch. 


LATIN    OF   FOURTH   PERIOD.  51 

and  in  these  shapes  they  appear  in  the  Norman  names 
Yvetot,  Caudebec,  and  Harfleur,  (fee. 

Now  any  words  thus  introduced  from  the  Norse  of 
Scandinavia  into  the  French  of  Normandy,  might,  by 
the  Norman  Conquest  of  England,  be  carried  further,  and 
so  find  their  way  into  the  English. 

In  such  a  case,  they  would  constitute  its  indirect 
Scandinavian  element. 

A  list  of  these  words  has  not  been  made ;  indeed 
•the  question  requires  far  more  investigation  than  it 
has  met  with.  The  names,  however,  of  the  islands 
Guerns-ey,  Jers-ey,  and  Aldern-ey.  are  certainly  of  the 
kind  in  question — since  the  -ey,  meaning  island,  is  the 
same  as  the  -ey  in  Orkn-ey,  and  is  the  Norse  rather  than 
the  Saxon  form. 

§  77.  Latin  of  the  third  period. — This  means  the 
Latin  which  was  introduced  between  the  battle  of 
Hastings  and  the  revival  of  literature.  It  chiefly  ori- 
ginated in  the  cloister,  in  the  universities,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  in  the  courts  of  law.  It  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  indirect  Latin  introduced  as  part  and 
parcel  of  the  Anglo-Norman.  It  has  yet  to  be  accu- 
rately analyzed. 

§  78.  Latin  of  the  fourth  period. — This  means  the 
Latin  which  has  been  introduced  between  the  revival  of 
literature  and  the  present  time.  It  has  originated  in  the 
writings  of  learned  men  in  general,  and  is  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  previous  periods  by : 

1.  Being  less  altered  in  form : 

1  2.   Preserving,  with  substantives,  in  many  cases  its 
original  inflections;  axis,  axes  ;  basis,  bases: 

3.  Relating  to  objects  and  ideas  for  which  the 
increase  of  the  range  of  science  in  general  has  required 
a  nomenclature. 


52  LATIN   OF  FOURTH   PERIOD. 

§  79.  Greek. — Words  derived  directly  from  the 
Greek  are  in  the  same  predicament  as  the  Latin  of  the 
third  period — phenomenon,  phcenomena;  criterion,  crite- 
ria, &c. ;  words  which  are  only  indirectly  of  Greek 
origin,  being  considered  to  belong  to  the  language  from 
which  they  were  immediately  introduced  into  the  English. 
Such  are  deacon,  priest,  &c.,  introduced  through  the 
Latin.  Hence  a  word  like  church  proves  no  more  in 
regard  to  a  Greek  element  in  English,  than  the  word 
abbot  proves  in  respect  to  a  Syrian  one. 

§  80.  The  Latin  of  the  fourth  period  and  the  Greek 
agree  in  retaining,  in  many  cases,  original  inflexions 
rather  than  adopting  the  English  ones  ;  in  other  words, 
they  agree  in  being  but  imperfectly  incorporated.  The 
phenomenon  of  imperfect  incorporation  is  reducible  to  the 
following  rules  : — 

1.  That  it  has  a  direct  ratio  to  the  date  of  the  intro- 
duction, i.  e.,  the  more  recent  the  word  the  more  likely  it 
is  to  retain  its  original  inflexion. 

2.  That  it  has  a  relation  to  the  number  of  meanings 
belonging   to  the  words :  thus,   when  a  single  word  has 
two  meanings,   the   original  inflexion  expresses  one,  the 
English  inflexion  another — genius,  genii,  often  (spirits), 
geniuses  (men  of  genius}. 

3.  That  it  occurs  with  substantives  only,  and  that  only 
in  the  expression  of  number.     Thus,  although  the  plural 
of  substantives  like  axis  and  genius  are  Latin,  the  posses- 
sive cases  are  English.     So  also  are  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison for  adjectives,  like  circular,  and  the  tenses,  &c. 
for  verbs,  like  perambulate. 

§  81.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  chief  Latin  sub- 
stantives introduced  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
period  ;  and  preserving  the  Latin  plural  forms — 


LATIN   OF   FOUKTH   PEEIOD. 


53 


FIRST  CLASS. 
Words  ivherein  the  Latin  plural  is  the  same  as  the  Latin  singular. 


(a)  Sing. 

Apparatus 

Hiatus 

Impetus 


Plur. 
apparatus 
hiatws 
impetus 


Caries 

Congeries 

Series 

Species 

Superficies 


Plur. 

caries 

congeries 

series 

species 

superficies 


SECOND  CLASS. 

Words  wherein  the  Latin  plural  is  formed  from  the  Latin  singular  by 
changing  the  last  syllable. 

(a). —  Where  the  singular  termination  -a  is  changed  in  the  plural 
into  -ae : — 


Sing. 
Formula 
Lamina 
Larva 


Plur. 
formula 
lamince 
larvce 


.Sing. 

Nebula 

Scoria 


Plur. 

nebulee 

scorioe. 


. —  Where  the  singular  termination  -us  is  changed  in  the  plural 


into  -i : — 

Sing.  Plur. 

Calculws  calculi 

Coloss^«s  colossi 

Convolvulus  convolvuli 

Focus  foci 

Genms  genii 

Magws  magi 

Nautilus  nautili 

CEsophagws  ossophagi 


Sing. 

Polyp  MS 

Radios 

Ranunculus 

Sarcophagus 

Scliirrhws 

Stimulws 

Tumulws 


Plur. 
polype- 
radii 

ranunculi 
sarcophagi 
schirrhi 
stimuli 
tumuli 


(c). —  Where  the  singular  termination  -um  is  changed  in  the  plural 


into  -a : — 
Sing. 


Plur. 

Animalcul?/»i  animalcula 
Arcanww          arcana 
Collyriwm        collyria 
Dat«m  data 

Desideratwwi    desiderata 


Effluviwwt 
Emporiww 
Encomium 
Erratww* 


Plur. 

effluvia 

emporia 

encomia 

errata 


Gymnasi?«?i    gymnasia 


64 


LATIN   OF   FOUETH  PERIOD. 


Sing.                 Plur. 
Lixivium           lixivia 
Lustrum            lustra 
Mausoleum       mausolea 
Medium            media 
Memorandum  memoranda 
Menstruum       menstrua 
Momentum       momenta 

Sing.                  Plur. 
Premium           preiuia 
Scholium           scholia 
Spectrum          spectra 
Speculum          specula 
Stratum            strata 
Succedaneum   succedanea. 

(d).  —  Where  the  singular  termination  -is  is  changed  in  the  plural 

into  -es  :  — 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Amanuensis 

amanuenses 

Ellipsis 

ellipses 

Analysis 

analyses 

Emphasis 

emphases 

Antithesis 

antitheses 

Hypothesis 

hypotheses 

Axis 

axes 

Oasis 

oases 

Basis 

bases 

Parenthesis 

parentheses 

Crisis 

crises 

Synthesis 

syntheses 

Diaeresis 

diaereses 

Thesis 

theses 

THIRD  CLASS. 

Words  wherein  the  plural  is  formed  by  inserting  -e  between  the  last 
two  sounds  of  the  singular,  so  that  the  former  number  always  contains  a 
syllable  more  than  the  latter  : — 

Sing.  Plur. 

Apex  sounded        apec-s  apices 

Appendix  —             appendic-s  appendices 

Calix  calic-s  calices 

Cicatrix  cicatric-s  cicatrices 

Helix        %  helic-s  helices 

Index  —            indec-s  indices 

Radix  radic-s  radices 

Vertex  vertec-s  vertices 

Vortex  vortec-s  vortices 

In  all  these  words  the  c  of  the  singular  number  is  sounded  as  k;  of  the 
plural,  as  s. 


§    82.    The  following  is   a  list  of  the   chief  Greek 


MISCELLANEOUS   ELEMENTS. 


55 


substantives  lately  introduced,  and  preserving  the  Greek 
plural  forms — 

FIRST    CLASS. 
Word*  where  the  singular  termination  -on  is  changed  in   the  plural 


Sing. 
Aphelion 
Perihelion 
Automaton, 


Plur. 
aphelia 
perihelia 
automata 


Sing. 

Criterion  criteria 

Ephemeron,  ephemera 

Phsenomenoji  phenomena. 


SECOND    CLASS. 

Words  where  the  plural  is  formed  from  the  original  root  by  ac 
either  -es,  or  -a,  but  where  the  singular  rejects  the  last  letter  of  the  original 
root.    ' 

Plurals  in  -es  : — 

Original  root. 
Apsid- 
Cantharid- 
Chrysalid- 
Ephemerid- 
Tripod- 


Plur. 

Sing. 

apsides 
cantharid<?s 

apsis 
cantharis 

chrysalides 
ephemerides 
tripodes 

chrysalis 
ephemeris 
tripos. 

Plurals  in  -a  :- 


Original  root. 
Dogmat- 
Lemmat- 
Miasmat- 


Plur. 
dogmata 
lemmata 
miasmata 


Sing. 
dogma 
lemma 
miasma.* 


§  83.  Miscellaneous  elements. — Of  miscellaneous  ele- 
ments we  have  two  sorts  ;  those  that  are  incorporated 
in  our  language,  and  are  currently  understood  (e.  g*.,  the 
Spanish  word  sherry,  the  Arabic  word  alkali,  and  the 
Persian  word  turban),  and  those  that,  even  amongst  the 
educated,  are  considered  strangers.  Of  this  latter  kind 


*  This  list  is  taken  from 
Grammar. 


Smart's   valuable   and    logical    English 


56  MISCELLANEOUS   ELEMENTS. 

(amongst  many  others)  are  the  oriental  words  hummum, 
kaftan,  gul,  &c. 

Of  the  currently  understood  miscellaneous  elements  of 
the  English  language,  the  most  important  are  from  the 
French  ;  some  of  which  agree  with  those  of  the  Latin  of 
the  fourth  period,  and  the  Greek,  in  preserving  the  French 
plural  forms — as  beau,  beaux,  billets-doux. 

Italian. — Some  words  of  Italian  origin  do  the  same  ; 
as  virtuoso,  virtuosi. 

Hebrew. — The  Hebrew  words,  cherub  and  seraph  do 
the  same ;  the  form  cherub-im,  and  seraph-im  being  not 
only  plurals  but  Hebrew  plurals. 

Beyond  the  words  derived  from  these  five  languages, 
none  form  their  plural  other  than  after  the  English 
method,  i.  e.,  in  -s,  as  waltzes,  from  the  German  word 
waltz. 

§  84.  Hence  we  have  a  measure  of  the  extent  to  which 
a  language,  which,  like  the  English,  at  one  and  the  same 
time  requires  names  for  many  objects,  comes  in  contact 
with  the  tongues  of  half  the  world,  and  has  moreover, 
a  great  power  of  incorporating  foreign  elements,  derives 
fresh  words  from  varied  sources  ;  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  incomplete  notice  of  the  languages  which 
have,  in  different  degrees,  supplied  it  with  new  terms. 

Arabic. — Admiral,  alchemist,  alchemy,  alcohol,  alcove, 
alembic,  algebra,  alkali,  assassin. 

Persian. — Turban,  caravan,  dervise,  &c. 

Turkish. — Coffee,  bashaw,  divan,  scimitar,  janisary, 
&c. 

Hindoo  languages. — Calico,  chintz,  cowrie,  curry,  lac, 
muslin,  toddy,  &c. 

Chinese. — Tea,  bohea,  congou,  hyson,  soy,  nankin, 
&c. 


MISCELLANEOUS   ELEMENTS.  57 

Malay. — Bantam  (fowl),  gamboge,  rattan,  sago,  shad- 
dock, &c. 

Polynesian. — Taboo,  tattoo. 

Tungusian  or  some  similar  Siberian  language. — 
Mammoth,  the  bones  of  which  are  chiefly  from  the  banks 
of  the  Lena. 

North  American  Indian. — Squaw,  wigwam,  pemmi- 
can. 

Peruvian. — Charki  =  prepared  meat ;  whence  jerked 
beef. 

Caribbean. — Hammock. 

§.  85.  A  distinction  is  drawn  between  the  direct  and 
indirect,  the  latter  leading  to  the  ultimate  origin  of 
words. 

Thus  a  word  borrowed  into  the  English  from  the 
French,  might  have  been  borrowed  into  the  French  from 
the  Latin,  into  the  Latin  from  the  Greek,  into  the  Greek 
from  the  Persian,  &c.,  and  so  ad  infinitum. 

The  investigation  of  this  is  a  matter  of  literary  curio- 
sity rather  than  any  important  branch  of  philology. 

The  ultimate  known  origin  of  many  common  words 
sometimes  goes  back  to  a  great  date,  and  points  to  extinct 
languages — 

Ancient  Nubian. — Barbarous. 

Ancient  Egyptian. — Ammonia. 

Ancient  Syrian. — Cyder. 

Ancient  Lycian. — Pandar. 

Ancient  Lydian. — Mseander. 

Ancient  Persian. — Paradise. 

§  86.  Again,  a  word  from  a  given  language  may  be 
introduced  by  more  lines  than  one  ;  or  it  may  be  intro- 
duced twice  over ;  once  at  an  earlier,  and  again  at  a 
later  period.  In  such  a  case  its  form  will,  most  pro- 
bably, vary ;  and,  what  is  more,  its  meaning  as  well. 
4* 


58  MISCELLANEOUS   ELEMENTS. 

Words  of  tliis  sort  may  be  called  di-morphic,  their  di- 
morphism having  originated  in  one  of  two  reasons — a 
difference  of  channel  or  a  difference  of  date.  Instances 
of  the  first  are.  syrup,  sherbet,  and  shrub,  all  originally 
from  the  Arabic,  srb ;  but  introduced  differently,  viz., 
the  first  through  the  Latin,  the  second  through  the  Per- 
sian, and  the  third  through  the  Hindoo.  Instances  of 
the  second  are  words  like  minster,  introduced  during  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  as  contrasted  with  monastery,  introduced 
during  the  Anglo-Norman  period.  By  the  proper  ap- 
plication of  these  processes,  we  account  for  words  so  dif- 
ferent in  present  form,  yet  so  identical  in  origin,  as  priest 
and  presbyter,  episcopal  and  bishop,  fyc. 

§  87.  Distinction. — The  history  of  the  languages  that 
have  been  spoken  in  a  particular  country,  is  a  different 
subject  from  the  history  of  a  particular  language.  The 
history  of  the  languages  that  have  been  spoken  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  is  the  history  of  Indian  lan- 
guages. The  history  of  the  languages  of  the  United 
States  is  the  history  of  a  Germanic  language. 

§  88.  Words  of  foreign  simulating  a  vernacular  ori- 
gin.— These  may  occur  in  any  mixed  language  whatever ; 
they  occur,  however,  oftener  in  the  English  than  in  any 
other. 

Let  a  word  be  introduced  from  a  foreign  language 
— let  it  have  some  resemblance  in  sound  to  a  real  English 
term :  lastly,  let  the  meanings  of  the  two  words  be  not 
absolutely  incompatible.  We  may  then  have  a  word 
of  foreign  origin  taking  the  appearance  of  an  English 
one.  Such,  amongst  others,  are  beef-eater,  from  bceuf- 
fetier  :  sparrow-grass,  asparagus  ;  Shotover,  Chateau- 
;*  Jerusalem,  Girasole  ;t  Spanish  beefeater,  spina 

*  As  in  Shotover  Hill,  near  Oxford 
f  As  in  Jerusalem  artichoke. 


MISCELLANEOUS   ELEMENTS.  59 

bifida ;  periwig,  peruke ;  runagate,  renegade ;  lute- 
string, lustrino  ;*  O  yes,  Oyez  !  ancient,  ensign .t 

Dog-cheap. — This  has  nothing  to  do  with  dogs.  The 
first  syllable  is  god = good  transposed,  and  the  second 
the  ch-p  in  chapman  ( =  merchant]  cheap,  and  East- 
cheap.  In  Sir  J.  Mandeville,  we  find  god-kepe  =  good 
bargain. 

Sky-larking. — Nothing  to  do  with  larks  of  any  sort ; 
still  less  the  particular  species,  alauda  arvensis.  The 
word  improperly  spelt  l-a-r-k,  and  banished  to  the  slang 
regions  of  the  English  language,  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  lac 
=game,  or  sport ;  wherein  the  a  is  sounded  as  in  father 
(not  as  in  farther).  Lek=game,  in  the  present  Scan- 
dinavian languages. 

Zachary  Macaulay  =  Zumalacarregui  ;  Billy  Ruf- 
fian =  Better ophon  ;  Sir  Roger  Dowlas  =  Surajah  Dow- 
lah,  although  so  limited  to  the  common  soldiers  and 
sailors,  who  first  used  them,  as  to  be  exploded  vulgarisms 
rather  than  integral  parts  of  the  language,  are  examples 
of  the  same  tendency  towards  the  irregular  accommodation 
of  misunderstood  foreign  terms. 

Birdbolt. — An  incorrect  name  for  the  gadus  lota,  or 
ell-pout,  and  a  transformation  of  barbote. 

Whistle-fish. — The  same  for  gadus  mustela,  or  weasel- 
fish. 

Liquorice =glycyrrhiza. 

Wormwood  =  weremuth,  is  an  instance  of  a  word  from 
the  same  language,  in  an  antiquated  shape,  being  equally 
transformed  with  a  word  of  really  foreign  origin. 

§  89.  Sometimes  the  transformation  of  the  name  has 
engendered  a  change  in  the  object  to  which  it  applies, 
or,  at  least,  has  evolved  new  ideas  in  connection  with  it. 
How  easy  for  a  person  who  used  the  words  beef-eater. 

*  A  sort  of  silk.  f  Attcient  Cassio — "  Othello." 


60  MISCELLANEOUS   ELEMENTS. 

sparrow-grass,  or  Jerusalem,  to  believe  that  the  officers 
designated  by  the  former  either  eat  or  used  to  eat  more 
beef  than  any  other  people  ;  that  the  second  word  was  the 
name  for  a  grass  or  herb  of  which  sparrows  were  fond  ; 
and  that  Jerusalem  artichokes  came  from  Palestine. 

What  has  just  been  supposed  has  sometimes  a  real 
occurrence.  To  account  for  the  name  of  Shot  over-hill,  I 
have  heard  that  Little  John  shot  over  it.  Here  the 
confusion,  in  order  to  set  itself  right,  breeds  a  fiction. 
Again,  in  chess,  the  piece  now  called  the  queen,  was 
originally  the  elephant.  This  was  in  Persian,  ferz. 
In  French  it  became  vierge,  which,  in  time,  came  to  be 
mistaken  for  a  derivative,  and  virgo  =  the  virgin,  the 
lady,  the  queen. 

§  90.  Sometimes,  wrhere  the  form  of  a  word  in  re- 
spect to  its  sound  is  not  affected,  a  false  spirit  of  accom- 
modation introduces  an  unetymological  spelling ;  as 
frontispiece,  from  frontispecium,  sovei^ign,  from  sov- 
rano,  colleague  from  collega,  lanihorn  (old  orthography) 
from  lanterna. 

The  value  of  forms  like  these  consists  in  their  showing 
that  language  is  affected  by  false  etymologies  as  well  as 

by  true  ones. 

****** 

§  91.  In  lambkin  and  lancet,  the  final  syllables  (-kin 
and  -et)  have  the  same  power.  They  both  express  the 
idea  of  smallness  or  diminutiveness.  These  words  are 
but  two  out  of  a  multitude,  the  one  (lamb)  being  of 
Saxon,  the  other  (lance)  of  Norman  origin.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  the  superadded  syllables :  -kin  being 
Saxon  ;  -et  Norman.  Now  to  add  a  Saxon  termination 
to  a  Norman  word,  or  vice  versa,  is  to  corrupt  the  English 
language. 

This  leads  to  some  observation  respecting  the — 


MISCELLANEOUS  ELEMENTS.  61 

§  92.  Introduction  of  new  words  and  Hybridism. — 
Hybridism  is  a  term  derived  from  hybrid-a,  a  mongrel ; 
a  Latin  word  of  Greek  extraction. 

The  terminations  -ize  (as  in  criticize),  -ism  (as  in  crit- 
icism], -ic  (as  in  comic) — these,  amongst  many  others,  are 
Greek  terminations.  To  add  them  to  words  not  of  Greek 
origin  is  to  be  guilty  of  hybridism.  Hence,  witticism  is 
objectionable. 

The  terminations  -ble  (as  in  penetrable),  -bility  (as  in 
penetrability],  -al  (as  in  parental] — these,  amongst  many 
others,  are  Latin  terminations.  To  add  them  to  words  not 
of  Latin  origin  is  to  be  guilty  of  hybridism. 

Hybridism  is  the  commonest  fault  that  accompanies 
the  introduction  of  new  words.  The  hybrid  additions  to 
the  English  language  are  most  numerous  in  works  on  sci- 
ence. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  concealed  that  several  well 
established  words  are  hybrid ;  and  that,  even  in  the  wri- 
tings of  the  classical  Roman  authors,  there  is  hybridism 
between  the  Latin  and  the  Greek. 

Nevertheless,  the  etymological  view  of  every  word  of 
foreign  origin  is,  not  that  it  is  put  together  in  England, 
but  that  it  is  brought  whole  from  the  language  to  which  it 
is  vernacular.  Now  no  derived  word  can  be  brought  whole 
from  a  language  unless,  in  that  language,  all  its  parts  ex- 
ist. The  word  penetrability  is  not  derived  from  the  Eng- 
lish word  penetrable,  by  the  addition  of  -ty.  It  is  the 
Latin  word  penetrabilitas  imported. 

In  derived  words  all  the  parts  must  belong  to  one  and 
the  same  language,  or,  changing  the  expression,  every 
derived  word  must  have  a  possible  form  in  the  language 
from  which  it  is  taken.  Such  is  the  rule  against  hy- 
bridism. 

§  93.  A  true  word  sometimes  takes  the  appearance  of 


62  MISCELLANEOUS   ELEMENTS. 

a  hybrid  without  really  being  so.  The  -icle,  in  icicle,  is 
apparently  the  same  as  the  -icle  in  radicle.  Now,  as  ice 
is  Gothic,  and  -icle  classical,  hybridism  is  simulated.  Icicle, 
however,  is  not  a  derivative  but  a  compound ;  its  parts  be- 
ing is  and  gicel,  both  Anglo-Saxon  words.* 

§  94.  On  incompletion  of  the  radical. — Let  there  be 
in  a  given  language  a  series  of  roots  ending  in  -t,  as  scemat. 
Let  a  euphonic  influence  eject  the  -t,  as  often  as  the  word 
occurs  in  the  nominative  case.  Let  the  nominative  case 
be  erroneously  considered  to  represent  the  root,  or  radical, 
of  the  word.  Let  a  derivative  word  be  formed  accord- 
ingly, i.  e.,  on  the  notion  that  the  nominative  form  and  the 
radical  form  coincide.  Such  a  derivative  will  exhibit  only 
a  part  of  the  root ;  in  other  words,  the  radical  will  be  in- 
complete. 

Now  all  this  is  what  actually  takes  place  in  words  like 
hcemo-ptysis  (spitting  of  blood),  sema-phore  (a  sort  of 
telegraph}.  The  Greek  imparisyllabics  eject  a  part  of  the 
root  hi  the  nominative  case  ;  the  radical  forms  being  hce- 
mat-  and  scemat-,  not  hcem-  and  seem-. 

Incompletion  of  the  radical  is  one  of  the  commonest 
causes  of  words  being  coined  faultily.  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  concealed,  that  even  in  the  classical  writers,  we 
have  in  words  like  S/O-TO/AO?  examples  of  incompletion  of 
the  radical. 

*  *  *  *  *  * 

§  95.  The  preceding  chapters  have  paved  the  way  for 
a  distinction  between  the  historical  analysis  of  a  language, 
and  the  logical  analysis  of  one. 

Let  the  present  language  of  England  (for  illustration's 
sake  only)  consist  of  40,000  words.  Of  these  let  30,000 

*  Be  she  constant,  be  she  fickle, 
Be  she  flame,  or  be  she  ickle. 

SIR  0.  SEDIJEY. 


MISCELLANEOUS    ELEMENTS.  63 

be  Anglo-Saxon,  5,000  Anglo-Norman,  100  Celtic,  10 
Latin  of  the  first,  20  Latin  of  the  second,  and  30  Latin  of 
the  third  period,  50  Scandinavian,  and  the  rest  miscellane- 
ous. In  this  case  the  language  is  considered  according  to 
the  historical  origin  of  the  words  that  compose  it,  and  the 
analysis  is  an  historical  analysis. 

But  it  is  very  evident  that  the  English,  or  any  other 
language,  is  capable  of  being  contemplated  in  another 
view,  and  that  the  same  number  of  words  may  be  very  dif- 
ferently classified.  Instead  of  arranging  them  according 
to  the  languages  whence  they  are  derived,  let  them  be 
disposed  according  to  the  meanings  that  they  convey. 
Let  it  be  said,  for  instance,  that  out  of  40,000  words, 
10,000  are  the  names  of  natural  objects,  that  1000  denote 
abstract  ideas,  that  1000  relate  to  warfare,  1000  to  church 
matters,  500  to  points  of  chivalry,  1000  to  agriculture, 
and  so  on  through  the  whole.  In  this  case  the  analysis 
is  not  historical  but  logical ;  the  words  being  classed 
not  according  to  their  origin,  but  according  to  their 
meaning: 

Now  the  logical  and  historical  analyses  of  a  language 
generally  in  some  degree  coincide ;  that  is,  terms  for  a 
certain  set  of  ideas  come  from  certain  languages  ;  just  as 
in  English  a  large  proportion  of  our  chemical  terms  are 
Arabic,  whilst  a  still  larger  one  of  our  legal  ones  are 
Anglo-Norman. 


64  RELATION  OF  THE  ENGLISH. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  RELATION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  TO  THE  ANGLO-SAXON,  AND 
THE  STAGES  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

§  96.  THE  relation  of  the  present  English  to  the  An- 
glo-Saxon is  that  of  a  modern  language  to  an  ancient 
one :  the  words  modern  and  ancient  being  used  in  a  de- 
fined and  technical  sense. 

Let  the  word  smfibum  illustrate  this.  Smfe-um,  the 
dative  plural  of  smi¥>,  is  equivalent  in  meaning  to  the 
English  to  smiths,  or  to  the  Latin  fabr-is.  Smfoum, 
however,  is  a  single  Anglo-Saxon  word  (a  substantive, 
and  nothing  more) ;  whilst  its  English  equivalent  is  two 
words  (i.  e.,  a  substantive  with  the  addition  of  a  preposi- 
tion). The  letter  s,  in  smiths,  shows  that  the  word  is  plu- 
ral. The  -um.  in  smiftum,  does  this  and  something  more. 
It  is  the  sign  of  the  dative  case  plural.  The  -um  in 
smiftum,  is  the  part  of  a  word.  The  preposition  to  is  a 
separate  word  with  an  independent  existence.  Smtfbum 
is  the  radical  syllable  smift  +  the  subordinate  inflectional 
syllable  -um,  the  sign  of  the  dative  case.  The  combina-- 
tion  to  smiths  is  the  substantive  smiths  -f-  the  preposition 
to,  equivalent  in  power  to  the  sign  of  a  dative  case,  but 
different  from  it  in  form.  As  far,  then,  as  the  words  just 
quoted  is  concerned,  the  Anglo-Saxon  differs  from  the 
English  by  expressing  an  idea  by  a  certain  modification 
of  the  form  of  the  root,  whereas  the  modern  English  de- 
notes the  same  idea  by  the  addition  of  a  preposition  ;  in 


TO    THE   ANGLO-SAXON.  65 

other  words,  the  Saxon  inflection  is  superseded  by  a  com- 
bination of  words. 

The  sentences  in  italics  are  mere  variations  of  the 
same  general  statement.  1.  The  earlier  the  stage  of  a 
given  language  the  greater  the  amount  of  its  inflection- 
al forms,  and  the  later  the  stage  of  a  given  language, 
the  smaller  the  amount  of  them.  2.  As  languages  be- 
come modern  they  substitute  prepositions  and  auxiliary 
verbs  for  cases  and  tenses.  3.  The  amount  of  inflection 
is  in  the  inverse  proportion  to  the  amount  of  prepositions 
and  auxiliary  verbs.  4.  In  the  course  of  time  languages 
drop  their  inflections,  and  substitute  in  its  stead  circum- 
locutions by  means  of  prepositions,  fyc.  The  reverse 
never  takes  place.  5.  Given  two  modes  of  expression, 
the  one  inflectional  (smiftum),  the  other  circumlocutional* 
(to  smiths),  we  can  state  that  the  first  belongs  to  an  early, 
the  second  to  a  late,  state  of  language. 

The  present  chapter,  then  showing  the  relation  of  the 
English  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  shows  something  more.  It 
exhibits  the  general  relation  of  a  modern  to  an  ancient 
language.  As  the  English  is  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  so  are 
the  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian,  to  the  old  Norse ; 
and  so  are  the  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Ro- 
manese  and  Wallachian  to  the  Latin,  and  the  Romaic  to 
the  ancient  Greek. 

§  97.  Contrasted  with  the  English,  the  Anglo-Saxon 
has  (among  others)  the  following  differences. 

NOUNS. 

1.  Gender. — In  Anglo-Saxon  there  were  three  gen- 
ders, the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter.  With 
adjectives  each  gender  had  its  peculiar  declension.  With 

*  Or  periphrastic. 


66  RELATION   OF  THE   ENGLISH. 

substantives   also   there   were   appropriate   terminations, 
though  only  to  a  certain  degree. 

2.  The  definite  article  varied  with  the  gender  of  its 
substantive  ;  }>cet  eage,  the  eye ;  se  steorra,  the  star  ;  seo 
tunge,  the  tongue. 

3.  Number. — The  plural  form  in  -en  (as  in  oxen),  rare 
in  English,  was  common    in    Anglo-Saxon.     It  was    the 
regular  termination  of  a  whole  declension ;  e.  g.,  eagan, 
eyes ;  steorran,  stars ;    tungan,   tongues.     Besides  this, 
the  Anglo-Saxons  had  forms  in  -u  and  -a  as  ricu,  king- 
doms ;   gifa,  gifts.     The  termination  -s,  current   in   the 
present  English,  was  confined  to  a  single  gender  and  to  a 
single  declension,  as  endas,  ends ;  dagos,  days ;  smr&as, 
smiths. 

4.  Case. — Of  these  the  Saxons  had,  for  their  substan- 
tives, at  least  three  ;  viz.,  the  nominative,  dative,  genitive. 
With  the  pronouns  and  adjectives  there  was  a  true  accu- 
sative form ;  and  with  a  few  especial  words  an  ablative  or 
instrumental  one.     Smfo,  a  smith;  smfoe,  to  a  smith; 
smiles,  of  a  smith.     Plural,  smtfbas,  smiths ;   smfoum, 
to  smiths  ;  smfiba,  of  smiths  :  he.  he ;  hine,  him  ;  him,  to 
him ;  his,  his :  se,  the ;  ]>a,  the ;  ^y,  with  the ;  }>am,  to 
the  ;  }>(ps,  of  the. 

5.  Declension. — In  Anglo-Saxon  it  was  necessary  to 
determine   the  declension  of  a   substantive.     There   was 
the  weak,  or  simple  declension  for  words  ending  in  a  vowel 
(as,  eage,  steorra,  tunga),  and  the  strong  declension  for 
words  ending  in  a  consonant  (smi§,  sprcec,  leaf).     The 
letters  i  and  u  were  dealt  with  as  semivowels,  sami- vowels 
being  dealt  with  as  consonants  ;  so  that  words  like  sunu 
and  gifu  belonged  to  the  same  declension  as  smfe  and 
sprcBc. 

6.  Definite  and  indefinite  form   of  adjectives. — In 
Anglo-Saxon  each  adjective  had  two  forms,  one  definite 


TO   THE   ANGLO-SAXON.  67 

and  one  indefinite.  There  is  nothing  of  this  kind  in 
English.  We  say  a  good  sword,  and  the  good  sword 
equally.*  In  Anglo-Saxon,  however,  the  first  combina- 
tion would  be  se  gode  sweord,  the  second  an  god  sweord, 
the  definite  form  being  distinguished  from  the  indefinite 
by  the  addition  of  a  vowel. 

7.  Pronouns  personal. — The  Anglo  Saxon  language 
had  for  the  first  two  persons  a  dual  number ;  inflected  as 
follows : 

1st  Person.  2nd  Person. 

Norn.  Wit  We  two  Norn.  Git  Ye  two. 

Ace.    Unc  Us  two  Ace.    Ince  You  two 

Gen.    Uncer          Of  us  two  Gen.    Incer          Of  you  two. 

Besides  this,  the  demonstrative,  possessive,  and  relative 
pronouns,  as  well  as  the  numerals  twa  and  }>reo,  had  a 
fuller  declension  than  they  have  at  present. 

VERBS. 

8.  Mood. — The  subjunctive  mood  that  in  the  present 
English  (with  one  exception*)  differs  from  the  indicative 
only  in  the  third  person  singular,  was  in  Anglo-Saxon 
considerably  different  from  the  indicative. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Pres.  Sing.  1.     Lufige.  Plur.  1. 

2.  Lufast.  2.  >  LufiaS. 

3.  LufaS 

Subjunctive  Mood. 
Pres.  Sing.  1.  ^  Plur.  1.  ^ 

2.  >  Lufige  2.  V  Lufion. 


*  That  of  the  verb  substantive,  if  I  were,  subjunctive,  as  opposed  to 
I  was,  indicative. 


68  RELATION   OF  THE   ENGLISH 

The  Saxon  infinitive  ended  in  -an  (hifian).  and  besides 
this  there  was  a  so-called  gerundial  form,  to  lufigenne. 

Besides  these  there  were  considerable  differences  in 
respect  to  particular  words ;  but  of  these  no  notice  is 
taken  ;  the  object  being  to  indicate  the  differences  between 
the  ancient  and  modern  stages  of  a  language  in  respect  to 
grammatical  structure. 

9.  To  bring  about  these  changes  a  certain  amount  of 
time  is,  of  course,  necessary ;  a  condition  which  suggests 
the  difficult  question  as  to  the  rate  at  which  languages 
change.  This  is  different  for  different  languages  ;  but  as 
the  investigation  belongs  to  general  philology  rather  than 
to  the  particular  history  of  the  English  language,  it  finds 
no  place  here. 

§  98.  The  extent,  however,  to  which  external  causes 
may  accelerate  or  retard  philological  changes,  is  not  foreign 
to  our  subject ;  the  influence  of  the  Norman  Conquest, 
upon  the  previous  Anglo-Saxon  foundation,  being  a  prob- 
lem of  some  difficulty. 

At  the  first  glance  it  seems  to  have  been  considerable, 
especially  in  the  way  of  simplifying  the  grammar.  Yet 
the  accuracy  of  this  view  is  by  no  means  unequivocal. 
The  reasons  against  it  are  as  follows : 

a.  In  Friesland  no  such  conquest  took  place.     Yet  the 
modern  Frisian,  as  compared  with  the  ancient,  is  nearly 
as  simple  in  its  grammatical  structure,  as  the  English  is 
when  compared  with  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

b.  In  Norway,   Sweden,  and  Denmark,  no  such  con- 
quest took  place.     Yet  the  modern  Danish  and  Swedish, 
as  compared  with  the  Old  Norse,  are  nearly  as  simple  in 
their  grammatical  structure,  as  the  English  is,  when  com- 
pared with  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  question  requires  more  investigation  than  it  has 
met  with. 


TO   THE   ANGLO-SAXON.  69 

An  extract  from  Mr.  Hallam's  "  History  of  Literature" 
closes  the  present  section,  and  introduces  the  next. 

"  Nothing  can  be  more  difficult,  except  by  an  arbitrary  line,  than 
to  determine  the  commencement  of  the  English  language;  not  so 
much,  as  in  those  on  the  Continent,  because  we  are  in  want  of  ma- 
terials, but  rather  from  an  opposite  reason,  the  possibility  of  showing 
a  very  gradual  succession  of  verbal  changes  that  ended  in  a  change 
of  denomination.  We  should  probably  experience  a  similar  difficulty, 
if  we  knew  equally  well  the  current  idiom  of  France  or  Italy  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries.  For  when  we  compare  the  earliest 
English  of  the  thirteenth  century  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  twelfth, 
it  seems  hard  to  pronounce  why  it  should  pass  for  a  separate  language, 
rather  than  a  modification  or  simplification  of  the  former.  We  must 
conform,  however,  to  usage,  and  say  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  con- 
verted into  English: — 1.  By  contracting  and  otherwise  modifying 
the  pronunciation  and  orthography  of  words.  2.  By  omitting  many 
inflections,  especially  of  the  noun,  and  consequently  making  more  use 
of  articles  and  auxiliaries.  3.  By  the  introduction  of  French  deriva- 
tives. 4.  By  using  less  inversion  and  ellipsis,  especially  in  poetry. 
Of  these,  the  second  alone,  I  think,  can  be  considered  as  sufficient  to 
describe  a  new  form  of  language;  and  this  was  brought  about  so 
gradually,  that  we  are  not  relieved  from  much  of  our  difficulty,  as  to 
whether  some  compositions  shall  pass  for  the  latest  offspring  of  the 
mother,  or  the  earlier  fruits  of  the  daughter's  fertility.  It  is  a  proof 
of  this  difficulty  that  the  best  masters  of  our  ancient  language  have  lately 
introduced  the  word  Semi-Saxon,  which  is  to  cover  everything  from  A.  D. 
1150  to  A.  D.  1250." — Chapter  L  47. 


§  99.  This  shows  that  by  the  middle  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, the  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  standard  Anglo-Saxon  au- 
thors, had  undergone  such  a  change  as  to  induce  the 
scholars  of  the  present  age  to  denominate  it,  not  Saxon, 
hut  Semi-Sa,xon.  It  had  ceased  to  be  genuine  Saxon,  but 
had  not  yet  become  English. 

Some,  amongst  others,  of  the  earlier  changes  of  the 
standard  Anglo-Saxon  are, 

1.  The  substitution  of  -an  for  -as,  in  the  plural  of 


70  RELATION   OF  THE   ENGLISH 

substantives,  munucan  for  munucas  (monks) ;  and,  con- 
versely, the  substitution  of  -s  for  -n,  as  steorres  for 
steorran  (stars]. 

2.  The    ejection  or    shortening   of  final   vowels,  ]>cet 
ylc  for  \(Et  ylce  ;  sone  for  sunu  ;  name  for  nama  ;  dages 
for  dagos. 

3.  The  substitution  of  -n  for  -m  in  the  dative  case, 
hwilon  for  hwiliim. 

4.  The  ejection  of  the  -n  of  the  infinitive  mood,  cumme 
for  cuman  (to  come),  nemne  for  nemnen  (to  name). 

5.  The  ejection  of  -en  in  the  participle  passive,  I-hote 
for  gehaten  (called,  highf). 

6.  The  gerundial  termination  -enne,  superseded  by  the 
infinitive  termination  -en  ;  as  to  lufian  for  to  hifienne,  or 
lufigenne. 

7.  The  substitution  of  -en  for  -ab  in  the  persons  plu- 
ral of  verbs  :  hi  clepen  (they  call)  for  hi  clypiafc,  &c. 

The  preponderance  (not  the  occasional  occurrence)  of 
forms  like  those  above  constitute  Semi-Saxon  in  contra- 
distinction to  standard  Saxon,  classical  Saxon,  or  Anglo- 
Saxon  proper. 

§  100.  Old  English  stage. — Further  changes  convert 
Semi-Saxon  into  Old  English.  Some,  amongst  others,  are 
the  following : — 

1.  The  ejection  of  the  dative  plural  termination  -urn, 
and  the  substitution  of  the  preposition  to  and  the  plural 
sign  -s  ;  as  to  smiths  for  smr&um.     Of  the  dative  sing- 
gular  the  -e  is  retained  (ende,  worde) ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that,  although  recognized  in  writing,  it  was 
equally  recognized  in  pronunciation  also. 

2.  The  ejection  of  -es  in  the  genitive  singular  whenever 
the   preposition  of  came   before   it ;    Godes  love  ( God's 
love),  but  the  love  of  God,  and  not  the  love  of  Godes. 

3.  The  syllable  -es  as  a  sign  of  the  genitive  case  ex- 


TO   THE   ANGLO-SAXON.  71 

tended  to  all  genders  and  to  all  declensions  ;  heart's  for 
heortan  ;  surfs  for  sunnan. 

4.  The  same  in  respect  to  the  plural  number  ;  sterres 
for  steorran  ;  sons  for  suna. 

5.  The  ejection  of  -na  in  the  genitive  plural ;  as  of 
tunges  for  tungena. 

6.  The  use  of  the  word  the,  as  an  article,  instead  of 

S6,  &C. 

The  preponderance  of  the  forms  above  (and  not  their 
mere  occasional  occurrence)  constitutes  Old  English  in 
contradistinction  to  Semi-Saxon. 

§  101.  In  the  Old  English  the  following  forms  pre- 
dominate. 

1.  A  fuller  inflection  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun, 
or  definite  article  ;    \an,  ferine,  \czre,  \am  ; — in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Middle  English. 

2.  The  presence  of  the  dative  singular  in  -e  ;  ende, 
smithe. 

3.  The  existence  of  a  genitive  plural  in  -r  or  -ra ; 
heora,  theirs  ;  oiler,  of  all.     This,  with  substantives  and 
adjectives,  is  less  common. 

4.  The  substitution  of  heo  for  they,  of  heora  for  their, 
of  hem  for  them,. 

5.  A  more  frequent  use  of  min  and  thin,  for  my  and 
thy  ; — in  contradistinction  to  both   Middle  and  Modern 
English. 

6.  The  use  of  heo  for  she  ; — in  contradistinction  to 
Middle  and  Modern  English  and  Old  Lowland  Scotch. 

7.  The  use  of  broader  vowels ;  as  in  iclepud  or  icle- 
pod  (for  icleped  or  yclept)  •  geongQst,  youngest ;  ascode, 
asked  ;  eldore,  elder. 

8.  The  use  of  the  strong  preterits  (see  the  chapter  on 
the  tenses  of  verbs),  where  in  the  present  English  the 
weak  form  is  found — wex,  wop,  dalf,  for  waxed,  wept, 
delved. 


72  EELATION   OF   THE   ENGLISH 

9.  The  omission  not  only  of  the  gerundial  termina- 
tion -enne.  but  also  of  the  infinitive  sign  -en  after  to  ;  to 
honte,  to  speke  ; — in  contradistinction  to  Semi-Saxon. 

10.  The  substitution  of  -en  for  -e\  or  -eft,  in  the  first 
and  second  persons  plural  of  verbs  ;  we  wollen,  we  will : 
heo  schullen,  they  should. 

11.  The  comparative  absence  of  the  articles  se  and  seo. 

12.  The  substitution  of  ben  and  beeth,  for  synd  and 
syndon  =  we,  ye,  they  tire. 

§  102.  Concerning  the  extent  to  which  the  Anglo- 
Norman  was  used,  I  retail  the  following  statements  and 
quotations. 

1.  "  Letters  even  of  a  private  nature  were  written  in  Latin  till  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward   I,  soon  after  1270,  when   a  sudden 
change  brought  in  the  use  of  French," — Mr.  ffallam,  communicated  by  Mr. 
Stevenson  (Literature  of  Europe,  i.  52,  and  note). 

2.  Conversation  between  the  members  of  the  Universities  was  ordered 
to  be  carried  on  either  in  Latiu  or  French: — "  Si  qua  inter  seproferant, 
tolloquio   Latino   vel   saltern    Gallico   perfruantur" — Statutes   of    Oriel 
College,  Oxford. — ffallam,  ibid,  from  Warton. 

3.  "  The  Minutes  of  the  Corporation  of  London,  recorded  in  the  Town 
Clerk's  Office,  were  in  French,  as  well  as  the  Proceedings  in  Parliament, 
and  in  the  Courts  of  Justice." — Ibid. 

4.  "  In  Grammar  Schools,  boys  were  made  to  construe  their  Latin  into 
French  " — Ibid.     "  P'neri  in  scholis,  contra  morem  cccterarum  nationum,  et 
Normannorum  adventu,  derelicto  proprio  vulgari,  consfruere  Gallice  com- 
pelluntur.     Item  quod  filii  nobilium  ab  ipsis  cunabulorum  crepundiis  ad 

Gallicum  idioma  informantur.  Quibus  profecto  rurales  homines  assi- 
mulari  volentes,  ut  per  hoc  spectabiliores  videantur,  Francigenari  satagunt 
omni  nisu." — Higden  (Ed.  Gale,  p.  210). 

§  103.  The  reigns  of  Edward  III.,  and  Richard  II., 
may  be  said  to  form  a  transition  from  the  Old  to  the 
Middle  ;  those  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth  from  the  Middle  to 
the  New,  Recent  or  Modern  English.  No  very  definite 
line  of  demarcation,  however,  can  be  drawn. 


TO   THE   ANGLO-SAXON.  73 

§  104.  The  present  tendencies  of  the  English  may  be 
determined  by  observation :  and  as  most  of  them  will  be 
noticed  in  the  etymological  part  of  this  volume,  the  few 
here  indicated  must  be  looked  upon  as  illustrations  only. 

1.  The  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  indi- 
cative mood  is  likely  to  pass  away.    We  verify  this  by  the 
very  general  tendency  to  say  if  it  is,  and  if  he  speaks, 
rather  than  if  it  be,  and  if  he  speak. 

2.  The  distinction  between  the  participle  passive  and 
the  past  tense  is  likely  to  pass  away.     We  verify  this  by 
the  tendency  to  say  it  is  broke,  and  he  is  smote,  for  it  is 
broken  and  he  is  smitten.     • 

3.  Of  the  double  forms,  sung  and  sang,  drank  and 
drunk,  &c.,  one  only  will  be  the  permanent. 

As  stated  above,  these  tendencies  are  but  a  few  out  of 
many,  and  have  been  adduced  in  order  to  indicate  the 
subject  rather  than  to  exhaust  it. 


74:  QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Classify  the  Celtic  elements  of  the  English  language. 

2.  Enumerate  the  chief  periods  during  which  words  from  the  Latin 
were   introduced    into   English,    and    classify   the    Latin    elements    ac- 
cordingly. 

3.  What   words  were   introduced   directly   by  the  Danes,   Scandina- 
yians,  or   Norsemen?     "What  indirectly?     Through   what   language   did 
these  latter  come  ? 

4.  Give   the  dates  of  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  and  of  the  reigns  of 
Louis  Outremer,  Ethelred  II.,  and  Edward  the  Confessor.     What  was 
the  amount  of  Norman-French  elements  in  England  anterior  to  the  Con- 
quest ? 

5.  Give  the  languages  from  whence  the  following  words  were  intro- 
duced into  the  English — -flannel  jerked  (as  to  beef),  hammock,  apparatus, 
waltz,  Seraph,  plaid,  street,  muslin. 

6.  Distinguish   between   the  direct,   indirect,  and   ultimate  origin   of 
introduced  words.     What  words  have  we  in  English  which  are  supposed 
to  have  originated  in  the  Ancient  ^Egyptian,  the  Syrian,  and  the  languages 
of  Asia  Minor  ? 

7.  Under  what   different  forms   do   the  following  words   appear   in 
English — monasteriwn,  Trpeo-jSurepos,  fTri<TKoiros.     Account  for  these  differ- 
ences.    Syrup,    shrub,   and   sherbet,  all  originate  from   the   same  word. 
Explain  the  present  difference. 

8.  Give  the  direct  origin  (i.  e.,  the  languages  from  which  they  were 
immediately   introduced)   of — Druid,   epistle,   chivalry,   cyder,    mccander. 
Give  the  indirect  origin  of  the  same. 

9.  Investigate  the  process  by  which  a  word  like  sparrou>-grass,  ap- 
parently of  English  origin,  is,  in  reality,  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
asparagus.     Point  out  the  incorrectness  in  the  words  frontispiece,   col- 
league, and  la,nthorn. 


75 

10.  To  what  extent  may  Norse,  and  to  what  extent  may  Celtic  words, 
not  found  in  the  current  language  of  English,  be  found  in  the  provincial 
dialects  ? 

11.  What  were  the  original  names  of  the  towns  Whitby  and  Derby? 
From  what  language  are  the  present  names  derived  ?    Give  the  reason  for 
your  answer. 

12.  Show  the  extent   to  which  the   logical  and  historical  analyses 
coincide  in  respect  to  the  words  introduced  from  the  Roman  of  the  second 
period,  the  Arabic,   the  Anglo-Norman,   and   the   Celtic  of  the   current 
English. 

1 3.  What  are  the  plural  forms  of  criterion,  axis,  genius,  index,  dogma  ? 
When   is   a  word   introduced   from  a  foreign  language  perfectly,  when 
imperfectly  incorporated  with  the  language  into  which  it  is  imported  ?     Is 
the  following  expression  correct — the  cherubim  that  singeth  aloft  ?    If  not, 
why? 

14.  What  is  there  exceptionable  in  the  words   semaphore  (meaning 
a  sort  of  telegraph),  and  witticism.     Give  the  etymologies  of  the  words 
icicle,  radicle,  and  radical. 

15.  What  are  the  singular   forms  of  cantharides,  phcenomena,   and 
data? 

16.  What  are  the  stages  of  the  English  language!     How  does  the 
present  differ  from  the  older  ones  ? 

17.  Exhibit   in  detail  the  inflections   of  the   Anglo-Saxon   a)  noun, 
and  6)   verb,  which   are  not   found   in  the   present   English.     What  is 
the   import  of  the  loss   of  inflections,  and  their  replacement   by  sepa- 
rate words?     What  is  the  nature  of  such  words  in  nouns?     What  in 
verbs  ? 

18.  Contrast    the    syntax    of   the  Anglo-Saxon  with    the    Modern 
English  adjective.     What  is  the  English  for  the  Anglo-Saxon  words  wit, 
unc,  incer  ? 

19.  Express,  in  general   terms,  the  chief  points  wherein   a  modern 
language  differs  from  an  ancient  one :  or,  rather,  the  points  wherein  the 
different  stages  of  the  same  language  differ. 

20.  Investigate    the    influence    of   the   Norman    Conquest    on    the 
English.     Explain    the    terms    Semi-Saxon,    Old    English,    and    Middle 
English.    Compare   the  stages  of  the  English  with  those  of  the  other 
Gothic  tongues. 

21.  Give    the    Modern    English  for   the   following  forms    and    ex- 
pressions— munucas,  steorran,   to  lufienne.     What  are   the  Anglo-Saxon 
forms  of  munucan,  steorres,  i-hotte,  clepen?     Translate  the  Latin  word 
omnium    (genitive    plural    of    omnis)    into     Old    English.       Translate 


76  QUESTIONS. 

the    Greek    6,    rj,    r\t    into    Anglo-Saxon,    Old    English,    and    Modem 
English. 

22.  Investigate  the  extent  to  which  the  Anglo-Norman  superseded 
the  Anglo-Saxon  subsequent  to  the  Conquest.  Is  any  further  change  in 
the  grammatical  structure  of  our  language  probable  ?  If  so,  what  do  you 
consider  will  be  the  nature  of  it  * 


PART  III. 

SOU1SDS,    LETTEES,    PKONUNCIATION,    SPELLING. 


CHAPTER   I. 

GENERAL     NATURE     AND    CERTAIN     PROPERTIES    OF    ARTICULATE 
SOUNDS. 

§  105.  To  two  points  connected  with  the  subject 
of  the  following  chapter,  the  attention  of  the  reader  is 
requested. 

a.  In  the  comparison  of  sounds  the  ear  is  liable  to  be 
misled  by  the  eye.  Thus — 

The  syllables  ka  and  ga  are  similar  syllables.  The 
vowel  is  in  each  the  same,  and  the  consonant  is  but 
slightly  different.  Hence  the  words  ka  and  ga  are  more 
allied  to  each  other  than  the  words  ka  and  £>«,  ka  and 
ta^  &c.,  because  the  consonantal  sounds  of  k  and  g  are 
more  allied  than  the  consonantal  sounds  of  k  and  6,  k 
and  t. 

Comparing  the  syllables  ga  and  ka,  we  see  the 
affinity  between  the  sounds,  and  we  see  it  at  the  first 
glance.  It  lies  on  the  surface,  and  strikes  the  ear  at 
once. 

It  is,  however,  very  evident  that  ways  might  be 
devised,  or  might  arise  from  accident,  of  concealing  the 


78  NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES 

likeness  between  the  two  sounds,  or,  at  any  rate,  of 
making  it  less  palpable.  One  of  such  ways  would  be 
a  faulty  mode  of  spelling.  If  instead  of  ga  we  wrote 
gha  the  following  would  be  the  effect :  the  syllable  would 
appear  less  simple  than  it  really  was ;  it  would  look  as 
if  it  consisted  of  three  parts  instead  of  two,  and  con- 
sequently its  affinity  to  ka  would  seem  less  than  it  really 
was.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  a  little  consideration  would 
tell  us  that,  as  long  as  the  sound  remained  the  same, 
the  relation  of  the  two  syllables  remained  the  same  also  ; 
and  that,  if  the  contrary  appeared  to  be  the  case,  the 
ear  was  misled  by  the  eye.  Still  a  little  consideration 
would  be  required.  Now  in  the  English  language  we 
have  (amongst  others)  the  following  modes  of  spelling 
that  have  a  tendency  to  mislead ; — 

The  sounds  of  ph  and  of  f,  in  Philip  smd.Jillip,  differ 
to  the  eye,  but  to  the  ear  are  identical.  Here  a  differ- 
ence is  simulated. 

The  sounds  of  th  in  thin,  and  of  th  in  thine,  differ  to 
the  ear  but  to  the  eye  seem  the  same.  Here  a  difference 
is  concealed. 

Furthermore.  These  last  sounds  appear  to  the  eye  to 
be  double  or  compound.  This  is  not  the  case ;  they  are 
simple  single  sounds,  and  not  the  sounds  of  t  followed  by 
h.  as  the  spelling  leads  us  to  imagine. 

b.  Besides  improper  modes  of  spelling,  there  is  another 
way  of  concealing  the  true  nature  of  sounds.  If  I  say 
that  ka  and  ga  are  allied,  the  alliance  is  manifest ;  since 
I  compare  the  actual  sounds.  If  I  say  ka  and  gee  are 
allied,  the  alliance  is  concealed;  since  I  compare,  not 
the  actual  sounds,  but  only  the  names  of  the  letters  that 
express  those  sounds.  Now  in  the  English  language  we 
have  (amongst  others)  the  following  names  of  letters  that 
have  a  tendency  to  mislead  : — 


OF  ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  79 

The  sounds  fa  and  va  are  allied.  The  names  eff  and 
vee  conceal  this  alliance. 

The  sounds  sa  and  za  are  allied.  The  names  ess  and 
zed  conceal  the  alliance. 

In  comparing  sounds  it  is  advisable  to  have  nothing  to 
do  either  with  letters  or  names  of  letters.  Compare  the 
sounds  themselves. 

§  106.  In  many  cases  it  is  sufficient,  in  comparing  con- 
sonants, to  compare  syllables  that  contain  those  conso- 
nants ;  e.  g.j  in  order  to  determine  the  relations  of  p,  b,  f, 
v,  we  say  pa,  ba,  fa,  va  ;  or  for  those  of  s  and  z,  we  say 
sa,  za.  Here  we  compare  syllables,  each  consonant  being 
followed  by  a  vowel.  At  times  this  is  insufficient.  We 
are  often  obliged  to  isolate  the  consonant  from  its  vowel, 
and  bring  our  organs  to  utter  (or  half  utter)  the  imperfect 
sounds  of  p\  &',  £',  d\ 

§  107.  Let  any  of  the  vowels  (for  instance,  the  a  in 
father}  be  sounded.  The  lips,  the  tongue,  and  the  parts 
within  the  throat  remain  in  the  same  position ;  and  as 
long  as  these  remain  in  the  same  position  the  sound  is  that 
of  the  vowel  under  consideration.  Let,  however,  a  change 
take  place  in  the  position  of  the  organs  of  sound ;  let,  for 
instance,  the  lips  be  closed,  or  the  tongue  be  applied  to 
the  front  part  of  the  mouth:  in  that  case  the  vowel 
sound  is  cut  short.  It  undergoes  a  change.  It  terminates 
in  a  sound  that  is  different,  according  to  the  state  of  those 
organs  whereof  the  position  has  been  changed.  If,  on 
the  vowel  in  question,  the  lips  be  closed,  there  then  arises 
an  imperfect  sound  of  b  or  p.  If  on  the  other  hand,  the 
tongue  be  applied  to  the  fronl?  teeth,  or  to  the  fore- 
part of  the  palate,  the  sound  is  one  (more  or  less  imper- 
fect) of  t  or  d.  This  fact  illustrates  the  difference  be- 
tween the  vowels  and  the  consonants.  It  may  be  verified 


80  XATUKE   AND   PROPERTIES. 

by  pronouncing  the  a  in  fate,  ee  in  feet,  oo  in  book,  o  in 
note,  &c. 

It  is  a  further  condition  in  the  formation  of  a  vowel 
sound,  that  the  passage  of  the  breath  be  uninterrupted. 
In  the  sound  of  the  V  in  lo  (isolated  from  its  vowel)  the 
sound  is  as  continuous  as  it  is  with  the  a  in  fate.  Be- 
tween, however,  the  consonant  I  and  the  vowel  a  there  is 
this  difference :  with  a,  the  passage  of  the  breath  is  unin- 
terrupted ;  with  /,  the  tongue  is  applied  to  the  palate, 
breaking  or  arresting  the  passage  of  the  breath. 

§  108.  The  primary  division  of  our  articulate  sounds 
is  into  vowels  and  consonants.  The  latter  are  again  di- 
vided into  liquids  (/,  m,  n,  r)  and  mutes  (p,  b,  f,  v,  t,  d,  k, 
g,  s,  z,  &c.). 

§  109.  Sharp  and  flat. — Take  the  sounds  of  p,  f,  t, 
k,  s.  Isolate  them  from  their  vowels,  and  pronounce  them. 
The  sound  is  the  sound  of  a  whisper. 

Let  b,  v,  d,  g,  z,  be  similarly  treated.  The  sound 
is  no  whisper,  but  one  at  the  natural  tone  of  our  voice. 

Now  p,  f,  t,  k,  s  (with  some  others  that  will  be  brought 
forward  anon)  are  sharp,  whilst  b,  v,  &c.,  &reflat.  Instead 
of  sharp,  some  say  hard,  and  instead  of  flat,  some  say  soft. 
The  terms  sonant  and  surd  are,  in  a  scientific  point  of 
view,  the  least  exceptionable.  They  have,  however,  the 
disadvantage  of  being  pedantic.  The  tenues  of  the  clas- 
sics (as  far  as  they  go)  are  sharp,  the  medicB  flat. 

§  110.  Continuous  and  explosive. — Isolate  the  sounds 
of  b,  p,  t,  d,  k,  g.  Pronounce  them.  You  have  no  power 
of  prolonging  the  sounds,  or  of  resting  upon  them.  They 
escape  with  the  breath,  and  they  escape  at  once. 

It  is  not  so  with  f,  v,  sh,  zh.  Here  the  breath  is  trans- 
mitted by  degrees,  and  the  sound  can  be  drawn  out  and 
prolonged  for  an  indefinite  space  of  time.  Now  b}  p,  £, 
&c..  are  explosive,  /,  v,  &c.,  continuous. 


OF  ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  81 

§  111.  Concerning  the  vowels,  we  may  predicate  a) 
that  they  are  all  continuous,  b)  that  they  are  all  flat. 

Concerning  the  liquids,  we  may  predicate  a)  that  they 
are  all  continuous,  b)  that  they  are  all  flat. 

Concerning  the  mutes,  we  may  predicate  a)  that  one 
half  of  them  is  flat,  and  the  other  half  sharp,  and  b)  that 
some  are  continuous,  and  that  others  are  explosive. 

112. — The  letter  h  is  no  articulate  sound,  but  only  a 
breathing. 


82  SYSTEM   OF 


CHAPTER  II. 

SYSTEM    OF    ARTICULATE    SOUNDS. 

§  113. — THE  attention  of  the  reader  is  now  directed  to 
the  following  foreign  vowfcl  sounds. 

1.  The  e  ferme,  of  the  French. — This  is  a  sound  allied 
to,  but  different  from,  the  a  in  fate,  and  the  ee  in  feet. 
It  is  intermediate  to  the  two. 

2.  The  u  of  the  French,  u  of  the  Germans,  y  of  the 
Danes. — This  sound  is  intermediate  to  the  ee  in  feet,  and 
the  oo  in  book. 

3.  The  o  chiuso,  of  the  Italians. — Intermediate  to  the 
o  in  note,  and  the  oo  in  book. 

For  these  sounds  we  have  the  following  sequences :  a 
in  fate,  e  ferme,  ee  in  feet,  u  in  ubel  (German),  oo  in  book, 
o  chiuso,  o  in  note.  And  this  is  the  true  order  of  alli- 
ance among  the  vowels ;  a  in  fate,  and  o  in  note,  being 
the  extremes ;  the  other  sounds  being  transitional  or 
intermediate.  As  the  English  orthography  is  at  once 
singular  and  faulty,  it  exhibits  the  relationship  but  im- 
perfectly. 

§  114.  The  system  of  the  mutes. — Preliminary  to  the 
consideration  of  the  system  of  the  mutes,  let  it  be  ob- 
served : — 

1.  that  the  th  in  thin  is  a  simple  single  sound,  different 

from  the  th  in  thine,  and  that  it  may  be  expressed  by 
the  sign  )>. 

2.  That  the  th  in  thine  is  a  simple  single  sound,  different 


ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  83 

from  the  th  in  thin,  and  that  it  may  be  expressed  by 
the  sign  b. 

3.  That  the  sh  in  shine  is  a   simple   single  sound,  and 
that   it   may  be   expressed  by  the   sign   <r*  (Greek 


4.  That  the  z  in  azure,  glazier  (French  j)  is  a  simple 

single  sound,  and  that  it  may  be  expressed  by  the 
sign  f*  (Greek  J5}ra). 

5.  That  in  the  Laplandic,  and  possibly  in  many  other  lan- 

guages, there  are  two  peculiar  sounds,  different  from 
any  in  English,  German,  and  French,  &c.,  and  that 
they  may  respectively  be  expressed  by  the  sign  tc  and 
the  sign  7*  (Greek  tcaTTTra  and  yd^fjia). 
§  115.  With  these  preliminary  notices  we  may  exhibit 
the  system  of  the  sixteen  mutes  ;  having  previously  deter- 
mined the  meaning  of  two  fresh  terms,  and  bearing  in  mind 
what  was  said  concerning  the  words  sharp  and  flat,  con- 
tinuous and  explosive. 

Lene  and  aspirate.  —  From  the  sound  of  p  in  pat,  the 
sound  of  /  in  fat  differs  in  a  certain  degree.  This  differ- 
ence is  not  owing  to  a  difference  in  their  sharpness  or  flat- 
ness. Each  is  sharp.  Neither  is  it  owing  to  a  difference 
in  their  continuity  or  explosiveness  ;  although  /  is  contin- 
uous, whilst  p  is  explosive.  This  we  may  ascertain  by  con- 
sidering the  position  of  s.  The  sound  of  s  is  continuous  ; 
yet  s,  in  respect  to  the  difference  under  consideration,  is 
classed  not  with  f  the  continuous  sound  but  with  p  the 
explosive  one.  This  difference,  which  has  yet  to  be  pro- 
perly elucidated,  is  expressed  by  a  particular  term  ;  and 
p  is  called  lene,  f  is  called  aspirate. 

As  /is  to  p  so  is  v  to  b. 
As  v  is  to  b  so  is  }>  to  t. 

*  This  by  no  means  implies  that  such  was  the  power  of  <r,  £  7,  «,  in 
Greek.    They  are  merely  convenient  symbols. 


84  SYSTEM   OF 

As  }>  is  to  t  so  is  ft  to  d. 
As  ft  is  to  d  so  is  K  to  A:. 
As  /e  is  to  &  so  is  7  to  g\ 
As  7  is  to  g"  so  is  a-  to  -s. 
As  o-  is  to  5  so  is  f  to  z. 

Hence  p,  6,  t,  d,  k,  g,  s,  z,  are  lene  ;  /,  v,  J>,  ft,  *,  7, 
a,  f,  are  aspirate.  Also  p,  /,  £,  }>,  A:,  tc,  5,  <r,  are  sharp, 
whilst  6,  i;,  d,  ft,  g,  7,  z,  £  are  flat ;  so  that  there  is  a 
double  series  of  relationship  capable  of  being  expressed 
as  follows : — 


Lene.  Aspirate. 

Sharp.      Flat.  Sharp.      Flat, 
p              b  f 

t  d  }>  S 

k  g  K  7 

*  z  <r 


Sharp.  Flat. 

Lene.    Aspirate.  Lene.    Aspirate, 
p             f  b  v 

t  >  d          5 

*  *  9  y 

3  ff  Z 


All  the  so-called  aspirates  are  continuous ;  and,  with 
the  exception  of  s  and  z,  all  the  lenes  are  explosive. 

§  116.  I  believe  that  in  the  fact  of  each  mute  appear- 
ing in  a  four-fold  form  (i.  e.,  sharp,  or  flat,  lene,  or  aspirate), 
lies  the  essential  character  of  the  mutes  as  opposed  to  the 
liquids. 

§  117.  Y  and  w. — These  sounds,  respectively  inter- 
mediate to  7  and  i  (the  ee  in  feet),  and  to  v  and  u  (oo  in 
book),  form  a  transition  from  the  vowels  to  the  conso- 
nants. 

§  118.  The  French  word  roi,  and  the  English  words 
oil,  house,  are  specimens  of  a  fresh  class  of  articulations; 
viz.,  of  compound  vowel  sounds  or  diphthongs.  The 
diphthong  oi  is  the  vowel  o  +  the  semivowel  y.  The 
diphthongal  sound  in  roi  is  the  vowel  o  +  the  semivowel 
w.  In  roi  the  semivowel  element  precedes,  in  oil  it 
follows. 


ARTICULATE  SOUNDS.  85 

§  119.  The  words  quoted  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
diphthongal  system. 

1.  Diphthongs  with  the  semivowel  w,  a)  preceding,  as 
in  the  French  word  roi,  b)  following,  as  in  the  English 
word  new. 

2.  Diphthongs  with  the  semivowel  y,  a)  preceding,  as 
is  common  in  the  languages  of  the  Lithuanic  and  Slavonic 
stocks,  b)  following,  as  in  the  word  oil. 

3.  Triphthongs  with  a  semivowel  both  preceding  and 
following. 

The  diphthongs  in  English  are  four  ;  ow  as  in  house, 
ew  as  in  new,  oi  as  in  oil,  i  as  in  bite,  fight. 

§  120.  Chest,  jest. — Here  we  have  compound  con- 
sonantal sounds.  The  ch  in  chest  =  tjrsh;  the  j  in 
jest  =  d-\-  zh.  I  believe  that  in  these  combinations  one 
or  both  the  elements,  viz.,  t  and  sh,  d  and  zh,  are  modified  ; 
but  I  am  unable  to  state  the  exact  nature  of  this  modifica- 
tion. 

§  121.  Ng. — The  sound  of  the  ng  in  sing,  king, 
throng,  when  at  the  end  of  a  word,  or  of  singer,  ringing, 
&c.,  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  is  not  the  natural  sound  of 
the  combination  n  and  g,  each  letter  retaining  its  natu- 
ral power  and  sound;  but  a  simple  single  sound,  for 
which  the  combination  ng  is  a  conventional  mode  of  ex- 
pression. 

§  122.  Compared  with  a  in  fate,  and  the  o  in  note,  a 
in  father,  and  the  aw  in  bawl,  are  broad ;  the  vowels  of 
note  and.  fate  being  slender. 

§  123.  In  fat,  the  vowel  is,  according  to  common 
parlance,  short ;  in  fate,  it  is  long.  Here  we  have  the 
introduction  of  two  fresh  terms.  For  the  words  long 
and  short,  I  substitute  independent  and  dependent.  If 
from  the  word  fate  I  separate  the  final  consonantal 
sound,  the  syllable  fa  remains.  In  this  syllable  the  a 


86 


SYSTEM  OF 


has  precisely  the  sound  that  it  had  before.  It  remains 
unaltered.  The  removal  of  the  consonant  has  in  no- 
wise modified  its  sound  or  power.  It  is  not  so,  however, 
with  the  vowel  in  the  word  fat.  If  from  this  I  remove 
the  consonant  following,  and  so  leave  the  a  at  the  end  of 
the  syllable,  instead  of  in  the  middle,  I  must  do  one  of 
two  things  :  I  must  sound  it  either  as  the  a  in  fate,  or 
else  as  the  a  in  father.  Its  (so-called)  short  sound  it 
cannot  retain,  unless  it  be  supported  by  a  consonant  fol- 
lowing. For  this  reason  it  is  dependent.  The  same  is 
the  case  with  all  the  so-called  short  sounds,  viz.,  the  e  in 
bed,  i  in  Jit,  u  in  bull,  o  in  not,  win  but. 

§  124.  It  is  not  every  vowel  that  is  susceptible  of  every 
modification.  /  (ee)  and  u  (oo)  are  incapable  of  becoming 
broad.  The  e  in  bed,  although  both  broad  and  slender,  is 
incapable  of  becoming  independent.  For  the  u  in  but, 
and  for  the  o  of  certain  foreign  languages,  I  have  no  satis- 
factory systematic  position. 

§  125.   Vowel  System. 


Broad.                                                    Slender. 

Independent. 

Independent. 

Dependent. 

a,  in  father  . 

a,  in  fate. 

a,  in  fat. 

. 

e  infertile,  long 

e,  inferme,  short. 

e,  in  meine,  Germ  . 

. 

e,  in  bed. 

. 

ee,  in  feet 

i,  pit. 

. 

u,  of  the  German,  long 

the  same,  short. 

. 

oo,  in  book 

ou,  in  could. 

. 

o  in  chiuso 

the  same,  short. 

aw,  in  bawl  . 

o,  in  note 

o,  in  not. 

From  these  the  semivowels  w  and  y  make  a  transi- 
tion to  the  consonants  v  and  the  so-called  aspirate  of  g, 
respectively. 


ARTICULATE  SOUNDS. 


87 


Liquids. 


§  126.  System  of  Consonants. 


Mutes. 


Semivowels. 


Lene. 

Aspirate. 

Sharp.      Flat. 

Sharp.      Flat. 

M 

p              v 

f 

n 

t               d 

Ip              * 

I 

*             9 

K               7 

r 

s              z 

<r                f 

88  CERTAIN   COMBINATIONS 


CHAPTER    III. 

OF    CERTAIN    COMBINATIONS    OF    ARTICULATE    SOUNDS. 

§  127.  CERTAIN  combinations  of  articulate  sounds  are 
incapable  of  being  pronounced.  The  following  rule  is 
one  that,  in  the  forthcoming  pages,  will  frequently  be 
referred  to.  Two  (or  more)  mutes,  of  different  degrees  of 
sharpness  and  flatness,  are  incapable  of  coming  together 
in  the  same  syllable.  For  instance,  b,  v,  d,  g,  z,  &c.,  being 
flat,  and  p,  f,  t,  k,  s,  &c.,  being  sharp,  such  combinations 
as  abt,  avt,  apd,  afd,  agt,  akd,  atz,  ads,  &c.,  are  unpro- 
nounceable. Spelt,  indeed,  they  may  be ;  but  all  at- 
tempts at  pronunciation  end  in  a  change  of  the  com- 
bination. In  this  case  either  the  flat  letter  is  really 
changed  to  its  sharp  equivalent  (b  to  p,  d  to  t,  &c.)  or 
vice  versa  (p  to  b,  t  to  d).  The  combinations  abt  and 
agt,  to  be  pronounced,  must  become  either  apt  or  abd,  or 
else  akt  or  agd. 

The  word  mutes  in  the  third  sentence  of  this  section 
must  be  dwelt  on.  It  is  only  with  the  mutes  that  there 
is  an  impossibility  of  pronouncing  the  heterogeneous 
combinations  above-mentioned.  The  liquids  and  the 
vowels  are  flat ;  but  the  liquids  and  vowels,  although 
flat,  may  be  followed  by  a  sharp  consonant.  If  this  were 
not  the  case,  the  combinations  ap,  at,  alp,  alt,  &c.,  would 
be  unpronounceable. 

The  semivowels,  also,  although  flat,  admit  of  being 
followed  by  a  sharp  consonant. 


OF  AETICULATE   SOUNDS.  89 

§  128.  Unstable  combinations. — That  certain  sounds 
in  combination  with  others  have  a  tendency  to  undergo 
farther  changes,  may  be  collected  from  the  observation 
of  our  own  language,  as  we  find  it  spoken  by  those  around 
us,  or  by  ourselves.  The  diphthong  ew  is  a  sample 
of  what  may  be  called  an  unsteady  or  unstable  com- 
bination. There  is  a  natural  tendency  to  change  it 
either  into  oo  or  yoo  ;  perhaps  also  into  yew.  Hence  new 
is  sometimes  sounded  noo,  sometimes  nyoo,  and  some- 
times nyew. 

§  129.  Effect  of  the  semivowel  j  on  certain  letters 
when  they  precede  it. — Taken  by  itself  the  semivowel  y, 
followed  by  a  vowel  (ya,  yee,  yo,  you,  &c.),  forms  a 
stable  combination.  Not  so,  however,  if  it  be  preceded 
by  a  consonant,  of  the  series  t  or  s,  as  tya,  tyo  ;  dya, 
dyo ;  sya,  syo.  There  then  arises  an  unstable  combi- 
nation. Sya  and  syo  we  pronounce  as  sha  and  sho  ;  tya 
and  tyo  we  pronounce  as  cha  and  ja  (i.  e.,  tsh,  dzh). 
This  we  may  verify  from  our  pronunciation  of  words 
like  sure,  picture,  verdure  (shoor,  pictshoor,  verdzhoor), 
having  previously  remarked  that  the  u  in  those  words 
is  not  sounded  as  oo  but  as  yoo.  The  effect  of  the  semi- 
vowel y,  taken  with  the  instability  of  the  combination  ew, 
accounts  for  the  tendency  to  pronounce  dew  as  if  written 
jew. 

§  130.  Double  consonants  rare. — It  cannot  be  too 
clearly  understood  that  in  words  like  pitted,  stabbing, 
massy,  &c.,  there  is  no  real  reduplication  of  the  sounds 
of  t,  b,  and  s,  respectively.  Between  the  words  pitted 
(as  with  the  small-pox)  and  pitied  (as  being  an  object  of 
pity)  there  is  a  difference '  in  spelling  only.  In  speech 
the  words  are  identical.  The  reduplication  of  the  conso- 
nant is,  in  English  and  the  generality  of  languages,  a 


90  CERTAIN   COMBINATIONS 

conventional  mode  of  expressing  in  writing  the  shortness 
or  dependence,  of  the  vowel  preceding. 

§  131.  Real  reduplications  of  consonants,  i.  e.,  redu- 
plications of  their  sound,  are,  in  all  languages,  extremely 
rare.  In  English  they  occur  only  under  one  condition. 
In  compound  and  derived  words,  where  the  original  root 
ends,  and  the  superadded  affix  begins  with  the  same 
letter,  there  is  a  reduplication  of  the  sound  and  not  other- 
wise. In  the  word  soulless,  the  /  is  doubled  to  the  ear  as 
well  as  to  the  eye  ;  and  it  is  a  false  pronunciation  to  call 
it  souless  (soless).  In  the  "  Deformed  Transformed  "  it  is 
made  to  rhyme  with  no  less,  improperly : — 

"  Clay,  not  dead  but  soulless, 

Though  no  mortal  man  would  choose  thee, 
An  immortal  no  less 

Deigns  not  to  refuse  thee." 

In  the  following  words,  all  of  which  are  compounds,  we 
have  true  specimens  of  the  doubled  consonant. 

n  is  doubled  in  unnatural,  innate,  oneness. 
I  soulless,  civil-list,  palely, 

k          —  book-caste. 

t          —  seaport-town. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  concealed,  that,  in  the  mouths 
even  of  correct  speakers,  one  of  the  doubled  sounds  is  often 
dropped. 

§  132.  True  aspirates  rare. — The  criticism  applied  to 
words  like  pitted,  &c.,  applies  also  to  words  like  Philip, 
thin,  thine,  &c.  There  is  therein  no  sound  of  h.  How 
the  so-called  aspirates  differ  from  their  corresponding 
lenes  has  not  yet  been  determined.  That  it  is  not  by  the 
addition  of  A  is  evident.  Ph  and  th  are  conventional 
modes  of  spelling  simple  single  sounds,  which  might  better 
be  expressed  by  simple  single  signs. 


OF  AKTICULATE  SOUNDS.  91 

In  our  own  language  the  true  aspirates,  like  the  true 
reduplications,  are  found  only  in  compound  words ;  and 
there  they  are  often  slurred  in  the  pronunciation. 

We  find  p  and  h  in  the  words  haphazard,  upholder. 

—  6  and  h          —          abhorrent,  cub-hunting. 

—  /  and  h  —          knife-handle,  offhand, 

—  v  and  h          —          stave-head. 

—  d  and  h  —          adhesive,  childhood. 

—  t  and  h  —          nuthook. 

—  th  and  h  —          withhold. 

—  Ic  and  h  —          inkhorn,  bakehouse. 

—  g  and  h  —          gig-horse. 

—  s  and  h  race-horse,  falsehood. 

—  z  and  h  exhibit,  exhort. 

—  r  and  h  —          perhaps. 

—  I  and  h  wellhead,  foolhardy. 

—  m  and  h  —          Amherst. 

—  n  and  h  —          unhinge,  inherent,  iinhappy. 


92  EUPHONY   AND   PERMUTATION 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EUPHONY    AND    THE    PERMUTATION   OF    LETTERS. 

§  133.  1.  LET  there  be  two  syllables  of  which  the 
one  ends  in  m,  and  the  other  begins  with  r,  as  we  have 
in  the  syllables  num-  and  -rus  of  the  Latin  word  nu- 
merus. 

2.  Let  an  ejection  of  the  intervening  letters  bring 
these  two  syllables  into  immediate  contact,  numrus. 
The  m  and  r  form  an  unstable  combination.  To 
remedy  this  there  is  a  tendency  to  insert  an  intervening 
sound. 

In  English,  the  form  which  the  Latin  word  numerus 
takes  is  number  ;  in  Spanish,  nonibre.  The  b  makes  no 
part  of  the  original  word,  but  has  been  inserted  for  the 
sake  of  euphony  ;  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  by  a  eu- 
phonic process.  The  word  euphony  is  derived  from  e3 
(well),  and  (ficovrj  (fence,  a  voice). 

§  134.  In  the  words  give  and  gave  we  have  a  change 
of  tense  expressed  by  a  change  of  vowel.  In  the  words 
price  and  prize  a  change  of  meaning  is  expressed  by  a 
change  of  consonant.  In  clothe  and  clad  there  is  a 
change  both  of  a  vowel  and  of  a  consonant.  In  the 
words  to  use  and  a  use  there  is  a  similar  change,  although 
it  is  not  expressed  by  the  spelling.  To  the  ear  the  verb 
to  use  ends  in  z,  although  not  to  the  eye.  All  these  are 
instances  of  the  permutation  of  letters. 


OF   LETTERS.  93 

Permutation  of  Vowels. 


a 

to 

€, 

as        man,  men. 

a 

to 

00, 

as         stand,  stood. 

a 

to 

u, 

as         dare,  durst. 

a 

to 

e, 

as         was,  were. 

ea 

to 

o, 

as         speak,  spoken. 

ea=* 

to 

ea=e 

,                as         breath,  breathe. 

ee 

to 

* 

as         deep,  depth. 

ea 

to 

o, 

as         bear,  bore. 

i 

to 

a, 

as         spin,  span. 

i 

to 

u, 

as         spin,  spun. 

i=ei 

to 

o, 

as         smite,  smote. 

i=ei 

to 

*, 

as         smite,  smitten. 

i 

to 

a, 

as         give,  gave. 

i=ei 

to 

a, 

a,s         rise,  raise. 

5 

to 

e, 

as         sit,  set. 

ow 

to 

ew, 

as         blow,  blew. 

0 

to 

e, 

as         strong,  strength. 

00 

to 

ee, 

as         tooth,  teeth. 

0 

to 

i, 

as         top,  tip. 

0 

to 

e, 

as         o/c?,  e&fcr  ;    tell,  told. 

0 

to 

e, 

as         brother,  brethren. 

6=00 

to 

i, 

as         </o,  c?i</. 

0=00 

to 

o=u 

as         do,  done. 

00 

to 

o, 

as        choose,  chose. 

Permutation  of  Consonants. 

/ 

to    v, 

life,  live  ;  calf,  calves. 

> 

to    3, 

breath,  to  breathe. 

> 

to    d, 

seethe,  sod;  clothe,  clad. 

d 

to    t, 

build,  built. 

s 

to    z, 

use,  to  use. 

i 

to    r, 

was,  were  ;  lose,  forlorn. 

In  have  and  had  we  have  the  ejection  of  a  sound ;  in 
work  and  wrought,  the  transposition  of  one. 


94  PERMUTATION   OF   LETTERS. 


Permutation  of  Combinations. 

ie=i  to  owt  as  grind,  ground, 

ow  to  i=ei,  as  mouse,  mice ;  cow,  kine. 

ink  to  augh,  as  drink,  draught. 

ing  to  ough,  as  bring,  brought.. 

y  (formerly  g\  ough,  as  buy,  bought. 

igh=ei  to  ough,  as  Jight,  fought. 

eek  to  ough,  as  se<?&,  sought. 

It  must  be  noticed  that  the  list  above  is  far  from 
being  an  exhaustive  one.  The  expression  too  of  the 
changes  undergone  has  been  rendered  difficult  on  account 
of  the  imperfection  of  our  orthography.  The  whole 
section  has  been  written  in  illustration  of  the  meaning 
of  the  word  permutation,  rather  than  for  any  specific 
object  in  grammar. 


FOKMATION   OF   SYLLABLES.  95 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON   THE    FORMATION    OF    SYLLABLES. 

§  135.  IN  respect  to  the  formation  of  syllables,  I  am 
aware  of  no  more  than  one  point  that  requires  any  espe- 
cial consideration. 

In  certain  words,  of  more  than  one  syllable,  it  is 
difficult  to  say  to  which  syllable  an  intervening  conso- 
nant belongs.  For  instance,  does  the  v  in  river,  and  the 
e  in  fever,  belong  to  the  first  or  the  second  syllable  ?  Are 
the  words  to  be  divided  thus,  ri-ver,  fe-ver  ?  or  thus, 
riv-er,  fe-ver  ? 

The  solution  of  the  question  lies  by  no  means  on  the 
surface. 

In  the  first  place,  the  case  is  capable  of  being  viewed 
in  two  points  of  view — an  etymological  and  a  phonetic 
one. 

That  the  c  and  r  in  become,  berhymed,  &c.,  belong  to 
the  second  syllable,  we  determine  at  once  by  taking  the 
words  to  pieces ;  whereby  we  get  the  words  come  and 
rhymed  in  an  isolated  independent  form.  But  this  fact, 
although  it  settles  the  point  in  etymology,  leaves  it  as  it 
was  in  phonetics  ;  since  it  in  nowise  follows,  that,  because 
the  c  in  the  simple  word  come  is  exclusively  attached  to 
the  letter  that  succeeds,  it  is,  in  the  compound  word 
become,  exclusively  attached  to  it  also. 

To  the  following  point  of  structure  in  the  consonantal 
sounds  the  reader's  attention  is  particularly  directed. 


96  FORMATION   OF  SYLLABLES. 

1.  Let  the  vowel  a  (as  in  fate)  be  sounded. — 2.  Let 
it  be  followed  by  the  consonant  p,  so  as  to  form  the  syl- 
lable ap.  To  form  the  sound  of  p,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  lips  close  on  the  sound  of  a,  and  arrest  it.  Now,  if 
the  lips  be  left  to  themselves  they  will  not  remain  closed 
on  the  sound,  but  will  open  again ;  in  a  slight  degree 
indeed,  but  in  a .  degree  sufficient  to  cause  a  kind  of 
vibration,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  allow  an  escape  of  the 
remainder  of  the  current  of  breath  by  which  the  sound 
was  originally  formed.  To  re-open  in  a  slight  degree  is 
the  natural  tendency  of  the  lips  in  the  case  exhibited 
above. 

Now,  by  an  effort,  let  this  tendency  to  re-open  be 
counteracted.  Let  the  remaining  current  of  breath  be 
cut  short.  We  have,  then,  only  this,  viz.,  so  much  of 
the  syllable  dp  as  can  be  formed  by  the  closure  of  the 
lips.  All  that  portion  of  it  that  is  caused  by  their  re- 
opening is  deficient.  The  resulting  sound  seems  trun- 
cated, cut  short,  or  incomplete.  It  is  the  sound  of  p, 
minus  the  remnant  of  breath.  All  of  the  sound  p  that  is 
now  left  is  formed,  not  by  the  escape  of  the  breath,  but  by 
the  arrest  of  it. 

The  p  in  ap  is  a  final  sound.  With  initial  sounds  the 
case  is  different.  Let  the  lips  be  closed,  and  let  an  at- 
tempt be  made  to  .form  the  syllable  pa  by  suddenly 
opening  them.  The  sound'  appears  incomplete ;  but  its 
incompleteness  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  sound,  and  not 
at  the  end  of  it.  In  the  natural  course  of  things  there 
would  have  been  a  current  of  breath  preceding,  and  this 
current  would  have  given  a  vibration,  now  wanting.  All 
the  sound  that  is  formed  here  is  formed,  not  by  the  arrest 
of  breath,  but  by  the  escape  of  it. 

I  feel  that  this  account  of  the  mechanism  of  the  appa- 
rently simple  sound  p,  labours  under  all  the  difficulties 


FORMATION    OF    SYLLABLES.  97 

that  attend  the  description  of  a  sound  ;  and  for  this  reason 
I  again  request  the  reader  to  satisfy  himself  either  of  its 
truth  or  of  its  inaccuracy,  before  he  proceeds  to  the  con- 
clusions that  will  be  drawn  from  it. 

The  account,  however,  being  recognized,  we  have  in 
the  sound  of  p,  two  elements  : — 

1.  That  formed  by  the  current  of  air  and  the  closure 
of  the  lips,  as  in  ap.     This  may  be  called  the  sound  of 
breath  arrested. 

2.  That  formed  by  the  current  of  air,  and  the  opening 
of  the  lips,  as  in  pa.     This  may  be  called  the  sound  of 
breath  escaping. 

Now  what  may  be  said  of  p  may  be  said  of  all  the 
other  consonants,  the  words  tongue,  teeth,  &c.,  being  used 
instead  of  lips,  according  to  the  case. 

Let  the  sound  of  breath  arrested  be  expressed  by  TT, 
and  that  of  breath  escaping"  be  expressed  by  tf,  the  two 
together  formp  (TT  +  ^=^)- 

Thus  ap  (as  quoted  above)  is  p  —  -#,  or  TT  ;  whilst  pa 
(sounded  similarly  is  P  —  TT,  or  •#. 

In  the  formation  of  syllables,  I  consider  that  t  the 
sound  of  breath  arrested  belongs  to  the  first,  and  the 
sound  of  breath  escaping  to  the  second  syllable ;  that  if 
each  sound  were  expressed  by  a  separate  sign,  the  word 
happy  would  be  divided  thus,  hair-ay  •  and  that  such 
would  be  the  case  with  all  consonants  between  two  sylla- 
bles. The  whole  consonant  belongs  neither  to  one  syllable 
nor  the  other.  Half  of  it  belongs  to  each.  The  reduplica- 
tion of  the  p  in  happy,  the  t  in  pitted,  &c.,  is  a  mere 
point  of  spelling. 


98  ON   QUANTITY. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

ON     QUANTITY. 

§  136.  THE  dependent  vowels,  as  the  a  in  fat,  i  in  fit, 
u  in  but,  o  in  not,  have  the  character  of  being  uttered 
with  rapidity,  and  they  pass  quickly  in  the  enunciation, 
the  voice  not  resting  on  them.  This  rapidity  of  utterance 
becomes  more  evident  when  we  contrast  with  them  the 
prolonged  sounds  of  the  a  in  fate,  ee  in  feet,  oo  in  book. 
or  o  in  note;  wherein  the  utterance  is  retarded,  and 
wherein  the  voice  rests,  delays,  or  is  prolonged.  The  f 
and  t  of  fate  are  separated  by  a  longer  interval  than 
the  f  and  t  of  fat ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  jit, 
fret,  &c. 

Let  the  n  and  the  t  of  not  be  each  as  1,  the  o  also 
being  as  1 ;  then  each  letter,  consonant  or  vowel,  shall 
constitute  |  of  the  whole  word. 

Let,  however,  the  n  and  the  t  of  not  be  each  as  1,  the 
o  being  as  2.  Then,  instead  of  each  consonant  constitut- 
ing i  of  the  whole  word,  it  shall  constitute  but  1. 

Upon  the  comparative  extent  to  which  the  voice  is  pro- 
longed, the  division  of  vowels  and  syllables  into  long-  and 
short  has  been  established :  the  o  in  note  being  long,  the 
o  in  not  being  short.  And  the  longness  or  shortness  of  a 
vowel  or  syllable  is  said  to  be  its  quantity. 

§  137.  Attention  is  directed  to  the  word  vowel.  The 
longness  or  shortness  of  a  vowel  is  one  thing.  The  long- 
ness  or  shortness  of  a  syllable  another.  This  difference  is 


ON  QUANTITY.  99 

important  in  prosody ;  especially  in  comparing  the  English 
with  the  classical  metres. 

The  vowel  in  the  syllable  see  is  long  ;  and  long  it  re- 
mains, whether  it  stand  as  it  is,  or  be  followed  by  a  conso- 
nant, as  in  see-n,  or  by  a  vowel,  as  in  see-ing. 

The  vowel  in  the  word  sit  is  short.  If  followed  by  a 
vowel  it  becomes  unpronounceable,  except  as  the  ea  in  seat 
or  the  i  in  sight.  By  a  consonant,  however,  it  may  be 
followed.  Such  is  the  case  in  the  word  quoted — sit.  Fol- 
lowed by  a  second  consonant,  it  still  retains  its  shortness, 
e.  g.,  sits.  Whatever  the  comparative  length  of  the  syl- 
lables, see  and  seen,  sit  and  sits,  may  be,  the  length  of 
their  respective  vowels  is  the  same. 

Now,  if  we  determine  the  character  of  the  syllable  by 
the  character  of  the  vowel,  all  syllables '  are  short  where- 
in there  is  a  short  vowel,  and  all  are  long  wherein 
there  is  a  long  one.  Hence,  measured  by  the  quantity  of 
the  vowel,  the  word  sits  is  short,  and  the  syllable  see-  in 
seeing  is  long. 

§  138.  But  it  is  well  known  that  this  view  is  not  the 
view  commonly  taken  of  the  syllables  see  (in  seeing)  and 
sits.  It  is  well  known,  that,  in  the  eyes  of  a  classical 
scholar,  the  see  (in  seeing)  is  short,  and  that  in  the  word 
sits  the  i  is  long. 

The  classic  differs  from  the  Englishman  thus, — He 
measures  his  quantity,  not  by  the  length  of  the  vowel,  but 
by  the  length  of  the  syllable  taken  altogether.  The  per- 
ception of  this  distinction  enables  us  to  comprehend  the 
following  statements. 

a.  That  vowels  long  by  nature  may  appear  to  become 
short  by  position,  and  vice  versa. 

b.  That,  by  a  laxity  of  language,  the  vowel  may  be 
said  to  have  changed  its  quantity,  whilst  it  is  the  syllable 
alone  that  has  been  altered. 


100  OX   QUANTITY. 

c.  That  if  one  person  measures  his  quantities  by  the 
vowels,  and  another  by  the  syllables,  what  is  short  to  the 
one,  shall  be  long  to  the  other,  and  vice  versci.     The  same 
is  the  case  with  nations. 

d.  That  one  of  the  most  essential  differences  between 
the  English  and  the  classical  languages  is  that  the  quan- 
tities (as  far  as  they  go)  of  the  first  are  measured  by  the 
vowsl,  those  of  the  latter  by  the  syllable.     To  a  Roman 
the  word  monument  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and 
one  long  one ;  to  an  Englishman  it  contains  three  short 
syllables. 


ON   ACCENT.  101 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON    ACCENT. 

§  139.  IN  the  word  tyrant  there  is  an  emphasis,  or 
stress,  upon  the  first  syllable.  In  the  word  presume 
there  is  an  emphasis,  or  stress,  on  the  second  syllable. 
This  emphasis,  or  stress,  is  called  accent.  The  circum- 
stance of  a  syllable  bearing  an  accent  is  sometimes  ex- 
pressed by  a  mark  (') ;  in  which  case  the  word  is  said  to 
be  accentuated,  i.  e.,  to  have  the  accent  signified  in 
writing. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable — Brigade,  pre- 
tence, harpo6n,  relieve,  deter,  assume,  bes6ught,  bereft, 
bef6re,  abroad,  abtide,  abstriise,  intermix,  superddd, 
cavalier. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable  but  one — An'chor, 
ar'gue,  hasten,  father,  f6xes,  smiting,  husband,  market, 
vapour,  barefoot,  archangel,  bespatter,  disable,  terrific. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable  but  two — Reg'u- 
lar,  aritidote,  for'tify,  susceptible,  incontrovertible. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable  but  three  (rare) — 
Receptacle,  regulating,  talkativeness,  absolutely,  lumin- 
ary, inevitable,  &c. 

§  140.  A  great  number  of  words  are  distinguished  by 
the  difference  of  accent  alone. 

An  attribute.  To  attribute. 

The  month  August  An  august  person. 

A  com' pact.  Compact  (close). 


102  ON  ACCENT. 

To  con' jure  (magically).  Conjure   (enjoin). 

Des'ert,  wilderness.  Desert,  merit 

Invalid,  not  valid.  Invalid,  a  sickly  person. 

Minute,  60  seconds.  Minute,  small 

Supine,  part  of  speech.  Supine,  careless,  <fec. 

i 

§  141.  In  ty'rant  and  presume^  we  deal  with  single 
words  :  and  in  each  word  we  determine  which  syllable  is 
accented.  Contrasted  with  the  sort  of  accent  that  follows, 
this  may  be  called  a  verbal  accent. 

In  the  line, 

Better  for  us,  perhaps,  it  might  appear, 

(Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man,"  i.  169.) 

the  pronoun  us  is  strongly  brought  forward.  An  especial 
stress  or  emphasis  is  laid  upon  it,  denoting  that  there  are 
other  beings  to  whom  it  might  not  appear,  &c.  This  is 
collected  from  the  context.  Here  there  is  a  logical 
accent.  "  When  one  word  in  a  sentence  is  distinguished 
by  a  stress,  as  more  important  than  the  rest,  we  may  say 
that  it  is  emphatical,  or  that  an  emphasis  is  laid  upon 
it.  When  one  syllable  in  a  word  is  distinguished  by  a 
stress,  and  more  audible  than  the  rest,  we  say  that  it  is 
accented,  or  that  an  accent  is  put  upon  it.  Accent,  there- 
fore, is  to  syllables  what  emphasis  is  to  sentences  ;  it 
distinguishes  one  from  the  crowd,  and  brings  it  forward  to 
observation." — N ares'  "  Orthoepy,"  part  ii.  chap.  1. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  1QS 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§  142.  ORTHOEPY,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek 
orthon  (upright),  and  epos  (a  word),  signifies  the  right 
utterance  of  words.  Orthoepy  determines  words,  and 
deals  with  a  language  as  it  is  spoken  ;  orthography  deter- 
mines the  correct  spelling  of  words,  and  deals  with  a 
language  as  it  is  written.  This  latter  term  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  words  orthos  (upright),  and  graphe,  or 
grafcB  (writing).  Orthography  is  less  essential  to  lan- 
guage than  orthoepy;  since  all  languages  are  spoken, 
whilst  but  a  few  languages  are  written.  Orthography 
presupposes  orthoepy.  Orthography  addresses  itself  to 
the  eye,  orthoepy  to  the  ear.  Orthoepy  deals  with  the 
articulate  sounds  that  constitute  syllables  and  words ;  or- 
thography treats  of  the  signs  by  which  such  articulate 
sounds  are  expressed  in  writing.  A  letter  is  the  sign  of  an 
articulate  (and,  in  the  case  of  A,  of  an  inarticulate)  sound. 

§  143.  A  full  and  perfect  system  of  orthography  con- 
sists in  two  things  : — 1.  The  possession  of  a  sufficient  and 
consistent  alphabet.  2.  The  right  application  of  such  an 
alphabet.  This  position  may  be  illustrated  more  fully. 

§  144.  First,  in  respect  to  a  sufficient  and  consistent 
alphabet — Let  there  be  in  a  certain  language,  simple 
single  articulate  sounds,  to  the  number  of  forty,  whilst 
the  simple  single  signs,  or  letters,  expressive  of  them, 
amount  to  no  more  than  thirty.  In  this  case  the  alphabet 


104  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

is  insufficient.  It  is  not  full  enough:  since  ten  of  the 
simple  single  articulate  sounds  have  no  corresponding 
signs  whereby  they  may  be  expressed.  In  our  own  lan- 
guage, the  sounds  (amongst  others)  of  th  in  thin,  and  of  th 
in  thine,  are  simple  and  single,  whilst  there  is  no  sign 
equally  simple  and  single  to  spell  them  with. 

§  145.  An  alphabet,  howrever,  may  be  sufficient,  and 
yet  imperfect.  It  may  err  on  the  score  of  inconsistency. 
Let  there  be  in  a  given  language  two  simple  single 
sounds,  (for  instance)  the  p  in  pate,  and  the  f  in  fate. 
Let  these  sounds  stand  in  a  given  relation  to  each  other. 
Let  a  given  sign,  for  instance,  s  (as  is  actually  the  case 
in  Hebrew),  stand  for  the  p  in  pate ;  and  let  a  second 
sign  be  required  for  the  f  in  fate.  Concerning  the 
nature  of  this  latter  sign,  two  views  may  be  taken.  One 
framer  of  the  alphabet,  perceiving  that  the  two  sounds 
are  mere  modifications  of  each  other,  may  argue  that 
no  new  sign  (or  letter)  is  at  all  necessary,  but  that  the 
sound  of  f  in  fate  may  be  expressed  by  a  mere  modifica- 
tion of  the  sign  (or  letter)  S3,  and  may  be  written  thus  s, 
or  thus  s'  or  a',  &c. ;  upon  the  principle  that  like  sounds 
should  be  expressed  by  like  signs.  The  other  framer 
of  the  alphabet,  contemplating  the  difference  between 
the  two  sounds,  rather  than  the  likeness,  may  propose, 
not  a  mere  modification  of  the  sign  &,  but  a  letter  alto- 
gether new,  such  as  /,  or  <£,  &c.,  upon  the  principle  that 
sounds  of  a  given  degree  of  dissimilitude  should  be 
expressed  by  signs  of  a  different  degree  of  dissimili- 
tude. 

Hitherto  the  expression  of  the  sounds  in  point  is 
a  matter  of  convenience  only.  No  question  has  been 
raised  as  to  its  consistency  or  inconsistency.  This  be- 
gins under  conditions  like  the  following : — Let  there 
be  in  the  language  in  point  the  sounds  of  the  t  in  tin, 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  105 

and  of  the  th  in  thin;  which  (it  may  be  remembered) 
are  precisely  in  the  same  relation  to  each  other  as  the  p 
in  pate  and  the/  in  fate.  Let  each  of  these  sounds  have 
a  sign  or  letter  expressive  of  it.  Upon  the  nature  of 
these  signs,  or  letters,  will  depend  the  nature  of  the  sign 
or  letter  required  for  the  /  in  fate.  If  the  letter  express- 
ing the  th  in  thin  be  a  mere  modification  of  the  letter  ex- 
pressing the  t  in  tin,  then  must  the  letter  expressive  of 
the/  in  fate  be  a  mere  modification  of  the  letter  expressing 
the  p  in  pate,  and  vice  versa.  If  this  be  not  the  case,  the 
alphabet  is  inconsistent. 

In  the  English  alphabet  we  have  (amongst  others)  the 
following  inconsistency : — The  sound  of  the  f  in  fate,  in 
a  certain  relation  to  the  sound  of  the  p  in  pate,  is  ex 
pressed  by  a  totally  distinct  sign  ;  whereas,  the  sound  of 
the  th  in  thin  (similarly  related  to  the  t  in  tin)  is  expressed 
by  no  new  sign,  but  by  a  mere  modification  of  t ;  viz.,  th. 

§  146.  A  third  element  in  the  faultiness  of  an  alphabet 
is  the  fault  of  erroneous  representation.  The  best  illustra- 
tion of  this  we  get  from  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  where  the 
sounds  of  n  and  a,  mere  varieties  of  each  other,  are  re- 
presented by  distinct  and  dissimilar  signs,  whilst  n  and 
n,  sounds  specifically  distinct,  are  expressed  by  a  mere 
modification  of  the  same  sign,  or  letter. 

§  147.  The  right  application  of  an  alphabet. — An 
alphabet  may  be  both  sufficient  and  consistent,  accurate  in 
its  representation  of  the  alliances  between  articulate 
sounds,  and  in  no  wise  redundant ;  and  yet,  withal,  it  may 
be  so  wrongly  applied  as  to  be  defective.  Of  defect  in  the 
use  or  application  of  the  letters  of  an  alphabet,  the  three 
main  causes  are  the  following  : — 

a.  Unsteadiness  in  the  power  of  letters. — Of  this  there 
are  two  kinds.  In  the  first,  there  is  one  sound  with  two 
(or  more)  ways  of  expressing  it.  Such  is  the  sound  of 


106  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

the  letter  /  in  English.  In  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin 
it  is  spelt  with  a  single  simple  sign,  as  in  Jill ;  whilst  in 
Greek  words  it  is  denoted  by  a  combination,  as  in  Philip. 
The  reverse  of  this  takes  place  with  the  letter  g  ;  here  a 
single  sign  has  a  double  power  ;  in  gibbet  it  is  sounded  as 
j.  and  in  gibberish  as  g  in  got. 

b.  The  aim  at  secondary  objects. — The  natural  aim  of 
orthography,  of  spelling,  or  of  writing,  is  to  express  the 
sounds  of  a  language.     Syllables  and  words  it  takes  as 
they  meet  the  ear,  it  translates  them  by  appropriate  signs, 
and  so  paints  them,  as  it  were,  to  the  eye.     That  this  is 
the  natural  and  primary  object  is  self-evident ;  but  beyond 
this  natural  and  primary  object  there  is,  with  the  ortho- 
graphical systems  of  most  languages,  a   secondary  one, 
viz.,  the  attempt  to  combine  with  the  representation  of  the 
sound  of  a  given  word,  the  representation  of  its  history 
and  origin. 

The  sound  of  the  c,  in  city,  is  the  sound  that  we  na- 
turally spell  with  the  letter  s,  and  if  the  expression  of 
this  sound  was  the  only  object  of  our  orthographists, 
the  word  would  be  spelt  accordingly  (sity).  The  fol- 
lowing facts,  however,  traverse  this  simple  view  of  the 
matter.  The  word  is  a  derived  word  ;  it  is  transplanted 
into  our  own  language  from  the  Latin,  where  it  is  spelt 
with  a  c  (civitas)  ;  and  to  change  this  c  into  s  conceals  the 
origin  and  history  of  the  word.  For  this  reason  the  c 
is  retained,  although,  as  far  as  the  mere  expression  of 
sounds  (the  primary  object  in  orthography)  is  concerned, 
the  letter  is  a  superfluity.  In  cases  like  the  one  adduced 
the  orthography  is  bent  to  a  secondary  end,  and  is  tra- 
versed by  the  etymology. 

c.  Obsoleteness. — It   is  very  evident   that   modes   of 
spelling  which  at  one  time  may  have  been  correct,  may, 
by  a  change  of  pronunciation,  become  incorrect ;  so  that 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  107 

orthography  becomes  obsolete  whenever  there  takes  place 
a  change  of  speech  without  a  correspondent  change  of 
spelling. 

§  148.  From  the  foregoing  sections  we  arrive  at  the 
theory  of  a  full  and  perfect  alphabet  and  orthography, 
of  which  a  few  (amongst  many  others)  of  the  chief  con- 
ditions are  as  follow : — 

1.  That  for  every  simple   single  sound,  incapable  of 
being  represented  by  a  combination  of  letters,  there  be  a 
simple  single  sign. 

2.  That  sounds  within  a  determined  degree  of  like- 
ness be  represented  by  signs  within  a  determined  degree 
of  likeness  ;  whilst  sounds   beyond  a  certain   degree   of 
likeness  be  represented  by  distinct  and  different  signs,  and 
that  uniformly. 

3.  That  no  sound  have  more  than  one  sign  to  express 
it. 

4.  That  no  sign  express  more  than  one  sound. 

5.  That  the  primary  aim  of  orthography  be  to  express 
the  sounds  of  words,  and  not  their  histories. 

6.  That  changes  of  speech  be  followed  by  correspond- 
ing changes  of  spelling. 

With  these  principles  in  our  mind  we  may  measure 
the  imperfections  of  our  own  and  of  other  alphabets. 

§  149.  Previous  to  considering  the  sufficiency  or  in- 
sufficiency of  the  English  alphabet,  it  is  necessary  to 
enumerate  the  elementary  articulate  sounds  of  the  lan- 
guage. The  vowels  belonging  to  the  English  language 
are  the  following  twelve  : — 


1.  That  of  a  in  father. 

2.  —       a  —fat. 

3.  —       a  — fate. 

4.  —       aw —  bawl. 

5.  —      o  —  not. 

6.  —       o  —  note. 


7.  That  of  e  in  bed. 

8.  —      i  — pit. 

9.  —       ee — feet. 

10.  —      u  —  bull. 

11.  —       oo— fool. 

12.  —      u  —  duck. 


108 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


The  diphthongal  sounds  are  four. 

in 


1.  That  of 
2          — — 

3.  — - 

4.  — 


on 
ew 
oi 
i 


house, 
new. 
oil. 
bite. 


This  last  sound  being  most  incorrectly  expressed  by 
the  single  letter  i. 

The  consonantal  sounds  are,  1.  the  two  semivowels  ; 
2.  the  four  liquids  ;  3.  fourteen  out  of  the  sixteen  mutes  ; 
4.  ch  in  chest,  and  j  in  jest,  compound  sibilants  ;  5.  ng, 
as  in  king  ;  6.  the  aspirate  h.  In  all,  twenty-four. 


a  thin. 

thine. 

gun. 

kind. 

sin. 

zeal. 

shine, 
azure,  glazier. 

chest. 

jest. 


1.  \o        as  in 

wet. 

13.  th 

2-  y        — 

yet. 

14.  th 

3.  m          — 

man. 

15-  g 

4.  n           — 

not. 

16.  & 

5.1            — 

let. 

17.  s 

6.  r 

run. 

18.  z 

l.p 

pate. 

19.  sh 

8.6           — 

ban. 

20.2 

9-/ 

fan. 

21.  ch 

10.  v 

van. 

22.  j 

11.  t 

tin. 

23.  ng 

12.  d           — 

din. 

24.  h 

—  hot. 

§  150.  Some  writers  would  add  to  these  the  addi- 
tional sound  of  the  e  ferme  of  the  French ;  believing 
that  the  vowel  in  words  like  their  and  vein  has  a  dif- 
ferent sound  from  the  vowel  in  words  like  there  and 
vain.  For  my  own  part  I  cannot  detect  such  a  differ- 
ence either  in  my  own  speech  or  that  of  my  neigh- 
bours ;  although  I  am  far  from  denying  that  in  certain 
dialects  of  our  language  such  may  have  been  the  case. 
The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  "  Danish  Grammar 
for  Englishmen,"  by  Professor  Rask,  whose  eye,  in  the 
matter  in  question,  seems  to  have  misled  his  ear  ; . "  The 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  109 

ferme,  or  close  e,  is  very  frequent  in  Danish,  but 
scarcely  perceptible  in  English  ;  unless  in  such  words  as 
their,  vein,  veil,  which  appear  to  sound  a  little  different 
from  there,  vain,  vale" 

§  151.  The  vowels  being  twelve,  the  diphthongs  four, 
and  the  consonantal  sounds  twenty-four,  we  have  alto- 
gether as  many  as  forty  sounds,  some  being  so  closely 
allied  to  each  other  as  to  be  mere  modifications,  and 
others  being  combinations  rather  than  simple  sounds ; 
all,  however,  agreeing  in  requiring  to  be  expressed  by 
letters  or  by  combinations  of  letters,  and  to  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other.  This  enables  us  to  appreciate — 
§  152.  The  insufficiency  of  the  English  alphabet. — 

a.  In   respect   to   the   vowels. — Notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  sounds  of  the  a  in  father,  fate,  and  fat,  and 
of  the  o  and  the  aw  in  note,  not,  and  bawl,  are  modifi- 
cations of  a  and  o  respectively,  we  have  still  six  vowel 
sounds  specifically  distinct,  for  which  (y  being   a   conso- 
nant rather  than  a  vowel)  we  have  but  Jive  signs.     The 
u  in  duck,  specifically  distinct  from  the  u  in  bull,  has  no 
specifically  distinct  sign  to  represent  it. 

b.  In  respect  to  the  consonants. — The  th  in  thin,  the 
th  in  thine,  the  sh  in  shine,  the  z  in  azure,  and  the  ng  in 
king,   five   sounds   specifically  distinct,  and   five  sounds 
perfectly  simple  require  corresponding  signs,  which  they 
have  not. 

§  153.  Its  inconsistency. — The  /  in  fan,  and  the  v  in 
van,  sounds  in  a  certain  degree  of  relationship  to  p  and  b, 
are  expressed  by  sounds  as  unlike  as  f  is  unlike  p,  and 
as  v  is  unlike  b.  The  sound  of  the  th  in  thin,  the  th  in 
thine,  the  sh  in  shine,  similarly  related  to  t,  d,  and  s, 
are  expressed  by  signs  as  like  t,  d,  and  s,  respectively,  as  " 
th  and  sh. 

The  compound  sibilant  sound  of  j  in  jest  is  spelt  with 


110  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

the  single  sign  j,  whilst  the  compound  sibilant  sound  in 
chest  is  spelt  with  the  combination  ch. 

§  154.  Erroneousness. — The  sound  of  the  ee  in  feet 
is  considered  the  long  (independent)  sound  of  the  e  in 
bed  :  whereas  it  is  the  long  (independent)  sound  of  the 
i  in  pit. 

The  i  in  bite  is  considered  as  the  long  (independent) 
sound  of  the  i  in  pit ;  whereas  it  is  a  diphthongal 
sound. 

The  u  in  duck  is  looked  upon  as  a  modification  of 
the  n  in  bull ;  whereas  it  is  a  specifically  distinct 
sound. 

The  ou  in  house  and  the  oi  in  oil  are  looked  upon 
as  the  compounds  of  o  and  i  and  of  o  and  u  respect- 
ively ;  whereas  the  latter  element  of  them  is  not  i  and 
u,  but  y  and  w. 

The  th  in  thin  and  the  th  in  thine  are  dealt  with  as 
one  and  the  same  sound ;  whereas  they  are  sounds  spe- 
cifically distinct. 

The  ch  in  chest  is  dealt  with  as  a  modification  of  c 
(either  with  the  power  of  k  or  of  s) ;  whereas  its  elements 
are  t  and  sh. 

§  155.  Redundancy. — As  far  as  the  representation  of 
sounds  is  concerned  the  letter  c  is  superfluous.  In  words 
like  citizen  it  may  be  replaced  by  s;  in  words  like  cat 
by  k.  In  ch,  as  in  chest,  it  has  no  proper  place.  In  ch, 
as  in  mechanical,  is  may  be  replaced  by  k. 

Q  is  superfluous,  cw  or  kw  being  its  equivalent. 

X  also  is  superfluous,  ks,  gz,  or  z,  being  equivalent 
to  it. 

The  diphthongal  forms  CB  and  02,  as  in  dEneas  and 
Croesus,  except  in  the  way  of  etymology,  are  superfluous 
and  redundant. 

§  156.    Unsteadiness. — Here  we  have  (amongst  many 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  Ill 

other  examples),  1.  The  consonant  c  with  the  double 
power  of  s  and  k  ;  2.  g  with  its  sound  in  gun  and  also 
with  its  sound  in  gin;  3.  x  with  its  sounds  in  Alex- 
ander, apoplexy,  Xenophon. 

In  the  foregoing  examples  a  single  sign  has  a  double 
power ;  in  the  words  Philip  nndfilip.  &c.;  a  single  sound 
has  a  double  sign. 

In  respect  to  the  degree  wherein  the  English  ortho- 
graphy is  made  subservient  to  etymology,  it  is  sufficient 
to  repeat  the  statement  that  as  many  as  three  letters 
c,  CB,  and  ce  are  retained  in  the  alphabet  for  etymological 
purposes  only. 

§  157.  The  defects  noticed  in  the  preceding  sections 
are  absolute  defects,  and  would  exist,  as  they  do  at 
present,  were  there  no  language  in  the  world  except  the 
English.  This  is  not  the  case  with  those  that  are  now 
about  to  be  noticed ;  for  them,  indeed,  the  word  defect 
is  somewhat  too  strong  a  term.  They  may  more  properly 
be  termed  inconveniences. 

Compared  with  the  languages  of  the  rest  of  the  world 
the  use  of  many  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  is  sin- 
gular. The  letter  i  (when  long  or  independent)  is,  with 
the  exception  of  England,  generally  sounded  as  ee.  With 
Englishmen  it  has  a  diphthongal  power.  The  incon- 
venience of  this  is  the  necessity  that  it  imposes  upon  us, 
in  studying  foreign  languages,  of  unlearning  the  sound 
which  we  give  it  in  our  own,  and  of  learning  the  sound 
which  it  bears  in  the  language  studied.  So  it  is  (amongst 
many  others)  with  the  letter  j.  In  English  this  has  the 
sound  of  dzh,  in  French  of  zh,  and  in  German  of  y. 
From  singularity  in  the  use  of  letters  arises  inconveni- 
ence in  the  study  of  foreign  tongues. 

In  using  j  as  dzh  there  is  a  second  objection.  It  is 
not  only  inconvenient,  but  it  is  theoretically  incorrect. 


112  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

The  letter  j  was  originally  a  modification  of  the  vowel  i. 
The  Germans,  who  used  it  as  the  semivowel  y,  have  per- 
verted it  from  its  original  power  less  than  the  English 
have  done,  who  sound  it  dzh. 

With  these  views  we  may  appreciate  in  the  English 
alphabet  and  orthography — 

Its  convenience  or  inconvenience  in  respect  to  learn- 
ing foreign  tongues. — The  sound  given  to  the  a  in  fate  is 
singular.  Other  nations  sound  it  as  a  in  father. 

The  sound  given  to  the  e,  long  (or  independent),  is 
singular.  Other  nations  sound  it  either  as  a  in  fate,  or 
as  eferme. 

The  sound  given  to  the  i  in  bite  is  singular.  Other 
nations  sound  it  as  ee  in  feet. 

The  sound  given  to  the  oo  in  fool  is  singular.  Other 
nations  sound  it  as  the  o  in  note,  or  as  the  6  chiuso. 

The  sound  given  to  the  u  in  duck  is  singular.  Other 
nations  sound  it  as  the  u  in  bull. 

The  sound  given  to  the  ou  in  house  is  singular.  Other 
nations,  more  correctly,  represent  it  by  au  or  aw. 

The  sound  given  to  the  w  in  wet  is  somewhat  singular, 
but  is  also  correct  and  convenient.  With  many  nations  it 
is  not  found  at  all,  whilst  with  those  where  it  occurs  it  has 
the  sound  (there  or  thereabouts)  of  v. 

The  sound  given  to  y  is  somewhat  singular.  In 
Danish  it  has  a  vowel  power.  In  German  the  semi- 
vowel sound  is  spelt  with  j. 

The  sound  given  to  z-  is  not  the  sound  which  it  has  in 
German  and  Italian .  but  its  power  in  English  is  conve- 
nient and  correct. 

The  sound  given  to  ch  in  chest  is  singular.  In  other 
languages  it  has  generally  a  guttural  sound ;  in  French 
that  of  sh.  The  English  usage  is  more  correct  than  the 
French,  but  less  correct  than-  the  German. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  118 

The  sound  given  to  j  (as  said  before)  is  singular. 

§  158.  The  historical  propriety  or  impropriety  of 
certain  letters. — The  use  of  i  with  a  diphthongal  power 
is  not  only  singular  and  inconvenient,  but  also  historically 
incorrect.  The  Greek  iota,  from  whence  it  originates, 
has  the  sound  of  i  and  ee,  as  in  pit  and/ee£. 

The  y,  sounded  as  in  yet,  is  historically  incorrect.  It 
grew  out  of  the  Greek  v,  a  vowel,  and  no  semivowel. 
The  Danes  still  use  it  as  such,  that  is,  with  the  power  of 
the  German  u. 

The  use  of  j  for  dzh  is  historically  incorrect. 

The  use  of  c  for  k  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek  as 
mechanical,  ascetic.  &c.,  is  historically  incorrect.  The 
form  c  is  the  representative  of  7  and  <r  and  not  of  the 
Greek  kappa. 

§  159.  On  certain  conventional  modes  of  spelling. — 
In  the  Greek  language  the  sounds  of  o  in  not  and  of  o  in 
note  (although  allied)  are  expressed  by  the  unlike  signs 
(or  letters)  o  and  co,  respectively.  In  most  other  lan- 
guages the  difference  between  the  sounds  is  considered 
too  slight  to  require  for  its  expression  signs  so  distinct 
and  dissimilar.  In  some  languages  the  difference  is 
neglected  altogether.  In  many,  however,  it  is  ex- 
pressed, and  that  by  some  modification  of  the  original 
letter. 

Let  the  sign  (  " )  denote  that  the  vowel  over  which  it 
stands  is  long,  or  independent,  whilst  the  sign  (  **) 
indicates  shortness,  or  dependence.  In  such  a  case, 
instead  of  writing  not  and  nwt,  like  the  Greeks,  we  may 
write  nOt  and  not,  the  sign  serving  for  a  fresh  letter. 
Herein  the  expression  of  the  nature  of  the  sound  is 
natural,  because  the  natural  use  of  (  " )  and  ( " )  is  to 
express  length  or  shortness,  dependence  or  independ- 
ence. Now,  supposing  the  broad  sound  of  o  to  be 


114  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

already  represented,  it  is  very  evident  that,  of  the 
other  two  sounds  of  o.  the  one  must  be  long  (inde- 
pendent), and  the  other  short  (dependent)  ;  and  as  it  is 
only  necessary  to  express  one  of  these  conditions,  we  may, 
if  we  choose,  use  the  sign  (  " )  alone ;  its  presence  de- 
noting length,  and  its  absence  shortness  (independence  or 
dependence). 

As  signs  of  this  kind,  one  mark  is  as  good  as  another ; 
and  instead  of  (  " )  we  may,  if  we  chose,  substitute  such  a 
mark  as  ( ' )  and  write  n6t  =  not — ncot  =  note  ;  provided 
only  that  the  sign  ( ' )  expresses  no  other  condition  or 
affection  of  a  sound.  This  use  of  the  mark  ( ' ),  as  a 
sign  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long  (inde- 
pendent), is  common  in  many  languages.  But  is  this 
use  of  ( ' )  natural  1  For  a  reason  that  the  reader  has 
anticipated,  it  is  not  natural,  but  conventional.  Neither 
is  it  convenient.  It  is  used  elsewhere  not  as  the  sign 
of  quantity,  but  as  the  sign  of  accent ;  consequently, 
being  placed  over  a  letter,  and  being  interpreted  accord- 
ing to  its  natural  meaning,  it  gives  the  idea,  not  that  the 
syllable  is  long,  but  that  it  is  emphatic  or  accented.  Its 
use  as  a  sign  of  quantity  then,  would  be  an  ortho- 
graphical expedient,  or  an  inconvenient  conventional  mode 
of  spelling. 

The  English  language  abounds  in  orthographical 
expedients ;  the  modes  of  expressing  the  quantity  of  the 
vowels  being  particularly  numerous.  To  begin  with 
these  : — 

The  reduplication  of  a  vowel  where  there  is  but  one 
syllable  (as  in  feet,  cool),  is  an  orthographical  expedient. 
It  merely  means  that  the  syllable  is  long  (or  inde- 
pendent). 

The  juxtaposition  of  two  different  vowels,  where 
there  is  but  one  syllable  (as  in  plain,  moan),  is  an 


OKTHOGKAPHY.  115 

orthographical,  expedient.  It  generally  means  the  same 
as  the  reduplication  of  a  vowel,  i.  e.,  that  the  syllable  is 
long  (independent). 

The  addition  of  the  e  mute,  as  in  plane,  whale  (what- 
ever may  have  been  its  origin),  is,  at  present,  but  an  or- 
thographical expedient.  It  denotes  the  lengthening  of  the 
syllable. 

The  reduplication  of  the  consonant  after  a  vowel,  as  in 
spotted,  torrent,  is  in  most  cases  but  an  orthographical  ex- 
pedient. It  merely  denotes  that  the  preceding  vowel  is 
short  (dependent). 

The  use  of  ph  for  /  in  Philip,  is  an  orthographical 
expedient,  founded  upon  etymological  reasons. 

The  use  of  th  for  the  simple  sound  of  the  first  conso- 
nant in  thin  and  thine,  is  an  orthographical  expedient. 
The  combination  must  be  dealt  with  as  a  single  letter. 

Caution. — The  letter  x  and  q  are  not  orthographical 
expedients.  They  are  orthographical  compendiunis,  x  = 
ks,  and  q  =  kw. 


116  HISTORICAL   SKETCH. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HISTORICAL     SKETCH     OF     THE     ENGLISH     ALPHABET. 

§  160.  THE  preceding  chapter  has  exhibited  the  theory 
of  a  full  and  perfect  alphabet ;  it  has  shown  how  far  the 
English  alphabet  falls  short  of  such  a  standard ;  and, 
above  all.  it  has  exhibited  some  of  the  conventional  modes 
of  spelling  which  the  insufficiency  of  alphabets,  combined 
with  other  causes,  has  engendered.  The  present  chapter 
gives  a  history  of  our  alphabet,  whereby  many  of  its 
defects  are  accounted  for.  These  defects,  it  may  be 
said,  once  for  all,  the  English  alphabet  shares  with  those 
of  the  rest  of  the  world  :  although,  with  the  doubtful  ex- 
ception of  the  French,  it  possesses  them  in  a  higher  de- 
gree than  any. 

With  few,  if  any  exceptions,  all  the  modes  of  writing 
in  the  world  originate,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the 
Phoenician. 

At  a  certain  period  the  alphabet  of  Palestine,  Phoeni- 
cia, and  the  neighboring  languages  of  the  Semitic  tribes, 
consisted  of  twenty-two  separate  and  distinct  letters. 

Now  the  chances  are,  that,  let  a  language  possess  as 
few  elementary  articulate  sounds  as  possible,  an  alphabet 
of  only  twenty-two  letters  will  be  insufficient. 

Hence  it  may  safely  be  asserted,  that  the  original 
Semitic  alphabet  was  insufficient  for  even  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages. 

§  161.  In   this   state   it   was    imported  into   Greece. 


OF   ENGLISH   ALPHABET. 


117 


Now,  as  it  rarely  happens  that  any  two  languages  have 
precisely  the  same  elementary  articulate  sounds,  so  it 
rarely  happens  that  an  alphabet  can  be  transplanted  from 
one  tongue  to  another,  and  be  found  to  suit.  When  such 
is  the  case,  alterations  are  required.  The  extent  to  which 
these  alterations  are  made  at  all,  or  (if  made)  made  on  a 
right  principle  varies  with  different  languages.  Some 
adapt  an  introduced  alphabet  well :  others  badly. 

Of  the  twenty-two  Phoenician  letters  the  Greeks  took 
but  twenty-one.  The  eighteenth  letter,  tsadi  ss,  was 
never  imported  into  Europe. 

Compared  with  the  Semitic,  the  Old  Greek  alphabet 
ran  thus  : — 


6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 


Hebrew. 

Greek. 

Hebrew.       Greek. 

M 

A, 

13. 

fc 

M. 

a 

B. 

14. 

3 

N. 

a 

r. 

15. 

0 

5? 

i 

A. 

16. 

5> 

O. 

n 

E. 

17. 

& 

n. 

i 

Digamma. 

18. 

s 

— 

t 

Z. 

A  letter  called 

H. 

19. 

b 

koppa,  afterwards 

to 

e. 

ejected. 

i. 

20. 

h 

P. 

3 

K. 

21. 

a 

M    afterwards    2? 

i 

A. 

22. 

n 

T. 

The  names  of  the  letters  were  as  follows  : 


Hebrew.  Greek. 

1.  Aleph     ....  Alpha. 

2.  Beth Bseta. 

3.  Gimel     ....  Gamma. 

4.  Daleth     ....  Delta. 

6.  He E,  psilon. 

6.  Vaw Digamma. 


Hebrew. 

Greek. 

7.     Zayn     . 
8.     Heth.     , 

.    .    Zaeta, 
.    .  H£eta. 

9.     Teth     . 

.    .    Thajta. 

10.     Yod  .     . 

.    .  Iota. 

11.     Kaph    . 
12.    Lamed    . 

.    .    Kappa. 
.  Lambda. 

118  HISTORICAL    SKETCH. 


Hebrew.  Greek. 

13.  Mem    .    .    Mu. 

14.  Nun   .    .    .  NU. 

15.  Samech    .     Sigma? 

16.  Ayn  ...  0. 

17.  Pi    ,  Phi 


Hebrew.  Greek. 

18.  Tsadi    .    

19.  Kof    .    .  Koppa,  Archaic- 

20.  Resh      .     Rho. 

21.  Sin      .     .  San,  Doric. 

22.  Tau  .     .     Tau. 


The  alphabet  of  Phoenicia  and  Palestine  being  adapted 
to  the  language  of  Greece,  the  first  change  took  place  in 
the  manner  of  writing.  The  Phoenicians  wrote  from  right 
to  left ;  the  Greeks  from  left  to  right.  Besides  this,  the 
following  principles  were  recognised ; — 

a.  Letters  for  which  there  was  no  use  were  left  behind. 
This   was  the  case,  as  seen  above,  with  the  eighteenth 
letter,  tsadi. 

b.  Letters  expressive  of  sounds  for  which  there  was  no 
precise  equivalent  in  Greek,  were  used  with  other  powers. 
This  was  the  case  with  letters  5,  8,  16,  and  probably  with 
some  others. 

c.  Letters  of  which  the  original  sound,  in  the  course 
of  time,  became  changed,  were  allowed,  as  it  were,  to  drop 
out  of  the  alphabet.     This  was  the  case  with  6  and  19. 

d.  For  such  simple  single  elementary  articulate  sounds 
as  there  was  no  sign  or  letter  representant.  new  signs,  or 
letters,  were  invented.     This, principle  gave  to  the  Greek 
alphabet  the  new  signs  </>,  %,  t>,  o>. 

e.  The  new  signs  were  not  mere  modifications  of  the 
older  ones,  but  totally  new  letters. 

All  this  was  correct  in  principle ;  and  the  conse- 
quence is.  that  the  Greek  alphabet,  although  not  originally 
meant  to  express  a  European  tongue  at  all,  expresses  the 
Greek  language  well. 

§  162.  But  it  was  not  from  the  Greek  that  our  own 
alphabet  was  immediately  derived ;  although  ultimately 


OF   ENGLISH   ALPHABET.  119 

it  is  referable  to  the  same  source  as  the  Greek,  viz.,  the 
Phoenician. 

It  was  the  Roman  alphabet  which  served  as  the  basis 
to  the  English. 

And  it  is  in  the  changes  which  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
underwent  in  being  accommodated  to  the  Latin  language 
that  we  must  investigate  the  chief  peculiarities  of  the 
present  alphabet  and  orthography  of  Great  Britain  and 
America. 

Now  respecting  the  Roman  alphabet,  we  must  remem- 
ber that  it  was  not  taken  directly  from  the  Phoenician ;  in 
this  important  point  differing  from  the  Greek. 

Nor  yet  was  it  taken,  in  the  first  instance,  from  the 
Greek. 

It  had  a  double  origin. 

The  operation  of  the  principles  indicated  in  §  161  was 
a  work  of  the  time ;  and  hence  the  older  and  more  unmod- 
ified Greek  alphabet  approached  in  character  its  Phoeni- 
cian prototype  much  more  than  the  later,  or  modified. 
As  may  be  seen,  by  comparing  the  previous  alphabets 
with  the  common  alphabets  of  the  Greek  Grammar,  the 
letters  6  and  19  occur  in  the  earlier,  whilst  they  are 
missing  in  the  later,  modes  of  writing.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  old  alphabet  has  no  such  signs  as  <£,  %,  v,  o>,  ^ 
and  £. 

Such  being  the  case,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  what  would 
be  the  respective  conditions  of  two  Italian  languages 
which  borrowed  those  alphabets,  the  one  from  the  earlier, 
the  other  from  the  later  Greek.  The  former  would  con- 
tain the  equivalents  to  vaw  (6),  and  kof  (19) ;  but  be  des- 
titute of  $,  %,  &c. ;  whereas  the  latter  would  have  <£,  %, 
&c.,  but  be  without  either  vaw  or  kof. 

Much  the  same  would  be  the  case  with  any  single 


120 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH. 


Italian  language  which  took  as  its  basis  the  earlier,  but 
adopted,  during  the  course  of  time,  modifications  from  the 
later  Greek.  It  would  exhibit  within  itself  characters 
common  to  the  two  stages. 

This,  or  something  very  like  it,  was  the  case  with  Ro- 
man. For  the  first  two  or  three  centuries  the  alphabet 
was  Etruscan ;  Etruscan  derived  directly  from  the  Greek, 
and  from  the  old  Greek. 

Afterwards,  however,  the  later  Greek  alphabet  had  its 
influence,  and  the  additional  letters  which  it  contained 
were  more  or  less  incorporated ;  and  that  without  effect- 
ing the  ejection  of  any  earlier  ones. 

§  163.  With  these  preliminaries  we  may  investigate 
the  details  of  the  Roman  alphabet,  when  we  shall  find 
that  many  of  them  stand  in  remarkable  contrast  with 
those  of  Greece  and  Phoenicia.  At  the  same  time  where 
they  differ  with  them,  they  agree  with  the  English. 


Order.        Roman.       English.         Greek. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

L 

M 
N 
0 
P 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

O 

P 

Q 
R 


Alpha 

Baeta 

Gamma 

Delta 

Epsilon 

Digamma 


Hebrew. 
Aleph. 
Beth. 
Gimel. 
Daleth. 
He. 
Vaw. 

Heth. 

lod. 

IoA 

Kaf 

Lamed. 

Mem. 

Nun. 

Ayn. 

Phi. 

Ko£ 

Resh. 


OF   ENGLISH   ALPHABET.  121 

Order.  Roman.  English.  Greek.            Hebrew. 

19.  S  S  San  Sia 

20.  T  T  Tau  Tau. 

21.  U  U  Upsilon 

22.  V  V  Upsilon 

23.  W  Upsilon 

24.  X  X  Xi  Samech* 

25.  Y  Y  Upsilon 

26.  Z  Z  Zseta  Zain. 

§  164.  The  differences  of  this  table  are  referable  to 
one  of  the  following  four  heads  : — a.  Ejection,  b.  Ad- 
dition, c.  Change  of  power,  d.  Change  of  order. 

a.  Ejection.—  In  the  first  instance,  the  Italians  ejected 
as  unnecessary,  letters  7,t  9,  and  11  :  zayn  (zceta),  teth 
(thceta),  and  leaf  (kappa).  „  Either  the  sounds  which  they 
expressed  were  wanting  in  their  language ;  or  else  they 
were  expressed  by  some  other  letter.     The  former  was 
probably  the  case  with  7  and  9,  zcBta  and  thceta,  the  latter 
with  11,  kappa. 

b.  Addition.— Out  of  the  Greek  idta,  two ;  out  of  the 
Greek  upsilon,  four  modifications  have  been  evolved  ;  viz., 
i  and  j  out  of  t,  and  u,  u,  w^  y,  out  of  v. 

c.  Change  of  power. — Letter  3,  in  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
had   the   sound  of  the  g  in  gun;  in  Latin  that  of  k. 
The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  structure  of  the  Etruscan 
language.     In  that  tongue  the  flat  sounds  were  remark- 
ably deficient ;    indeed,   it   is   probable,   that   that   of  g 
was  wanting.     Its  sharp  equivalent,  however,  the  sound 
of  k,  was  by  no  means  wanting  ;  and  the  Greek  gamma 
was  used  to  denote  it.     This  made  the  equivalent  to  k, 
the  third  letter  of  the  alphabet,  as  early  as  the  time  of  the 
Etruscans. 

But  the  Romans  had  both  sounds,  the  flat  as  well  as 

*  As  a  name,  Sigma**=*Samech. 
f  Of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  table* 
7 


122  HISTORICAL   SKETCH 

the  sharp,  g  as  well  as  k.  How  did  they  express  them? 
Up  to  the  second  Punic  War  they  made  the  rounded 
form  of  the  Greek  P,  out  of  which  the  letter  C  has  arisen, 
do  double  work,  and  signify  k  and  g  equally,  just  as 
in  the  present  English  th  is  sounded  as  the  Greek  S,* 
and  as  dh  ;t  in  proof  whereof  we  have  in  the  Duillian 

Column,  MACESTRATOS  =  MAGISTRATES,  and  CARTHACI- 
NIENSES  =  C  ARTHAGINIENSES. 

Thus  much  concerning  the  power  and  places  of  the 
Latin  c,  as  opposed  to  the  Greek  y.  But  this  is  not  all. 
The  use  of  gamma,  with  the  power  of  k,  made  kappa 
superfluous,  and  accounts  for  its  ejection  in  the  Etruscan 
alphabet ;  a  fact  already  noticed. 

Furthermore,  an  addition  to  the  Etruscan  alphabet 
was  required  by  the  existence  of  the  sound  of  g,  in  Latin, 
as  soon  as  the  inconvenience  of  using  c  with  a  double 
power  became  manifest.  What  took  place  then  ?  Even 
this.  The  third  letter  was  modified  in  form,  or  became  a 
new  letter,  c  being  altered  into  g  ;  and  the  new  letter  took 
its  place  in  the  alphabet. 

Where  was  this?  As  the  seventh  letter  between/ 
(digamma)  and  h  (hcBta). 

Why?  Because  it  was  there  where  there  was  a 
vacancy,  and  where  it  replaced  the  Greek  zcBta,  or  the 
Hebrew  zayn,  a  letter  which,  at  that  time,  was  not 
wanted  in  Latin. 

d.  Change  of  order. — As  far  as  the  letters  c  and  g 
are  concerned,  this  has  been  explained ;  and  it  has  been 
shown  that  change  of  order  and  change  of  power  are 
sometimes  very  closely  connected.  All  that  now  need 
be  added  is,  that  those  letters  which  were  last  introduced 
from  the  Greek  into  the  Roman  alphabet,  were  placed  at 
the  end. 

*  In  thin.  \  In  thine. 


OF  ENGLISH  ALPHABET.  123 

This  is  why  u,  v,  w,  and  y  come  after  t — the  last 
letter  of  the  original  Phoenician,  and  also  of  the  older 
Greek. 

This,  too,  is  the  reason  for  z  coming  last  of  all.  It 
was  restored  for  the  purpose  of  spelling  Greek  words. 
But  as  its  original  place  had  been  filled  up  by  g,  it  was 
tacked  on  as  an  appendage,  rather  than  incorporated  as  an 
element. 

X  in  power,  coincided  with  the  Greek  xi ;  in  place, 
with  the  Greek  khi.  Its  position  seems  to  have  deter- 
mined its  form,  which  is  certainly  that  of  X  rather  than 
of  H.  The  full  investigation  of  this  is  too  lengthy  for  the 
present  work. 

§  165.  It  should  be  observed,  that,  in  the  Latin,  the 
letters  have  no  longer  any  names  (like  beth,  bceta),  except 
such  as  are  derived  from  their  powers  (be,  ce). 

§  166.  The  principles  which  determined  the  form  of 
the  Roman  alphabet  were,  upon  the  whole,  correct ;  and, 
hence,  the  Roman  alphabet,  although  not  originally  meant 
to  express  an  Italian  tongue  at  all,  expressed  the  language 
to  which  it  was  applied  tolerably. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  were  both  omissions  and 
alterations  which  have  had  a  detrimental  effect  upon  the 
orthography  of  those  other  numerous  tongues  to  which 
Latin  has  supplied  the  alphabet.  Thus — 

a.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret,  that  the  differences  which 
the  Greeks  drew  between  the  so-called  long  and  short  e 
and  o,  was  neglected  by  the  Latins  ;  in  other  words,  that 
a)  was  omitted  entirely,  and  rj  changed  in  power.     Had 
this  been  the  case,  all  the  orthographical  expedients  by 
which  we  have  to  express  the  difference  between  the  o  in 
not,  and  the  o  in  note,  would  have  been  prevented — not, 
note,  moat — bed,  bead,  heel,  glede,  &c. 

b.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret,  that  such  an  unnecessary 


124  HISTORICAL   SKETCH 

compendium  as  q  =  cu,  or  cw;,  should  have  been  retained 
from  the  old  Greek  alphabet;  and,  still  more  so,  that 
the  equally  superfluous  x  =  cs,  or  ks,  should  have  been  re- 
admitted. 

c.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret,  that  the  Greek  ^  was  not 
treated  like  the  Greek  f.  Neither  were  wanted  at  first ; 
both  afterwards.  The  manner,  however,  of  their  sub- 
sequent introduction  was  different.  Z&ta  came  in  as  a 
simple  single  letter,  significant  of  a  simple  single  sound. 
ThcBta,  on  the  contrary,  although  expressive  of  an  equally 
simple  sound,  became  th.  This  was  a  combination  rather 
than  a  letter  ;  and  the  error  which  it  engendered  was 
great. 

.  It  suggested  the  idea,  that  a  simple  sound  was  a  com- 
pound one — which  was  wrong. 

It  further  suggested  the  idea,  that  the  sound  of  ^ 
differed  from  that  of  T,  by  the  addition  of  h — which  was 
wrong  also. 

§  167.  The  Greek  language  had  a  system  of  sounds 
different  from  the  Phoenician  ;  and  the  alphabet  required 
modifying  accordingly. 

The  Roman  language  had  a  system  of  sounds  different 
from  the  Greek  and  the  alphabet  required  modifying 
accordingly. 

This  leads  us  to  certain  questions  concerning  the 
Anglo-Saxon.  Had  it  a  system  of  sounds  different  from 
the  Roman  ?  If  so,  what  modifications  did  the  alphabet 
require  ?  Were  such  modifications  effected  ?  If  so,  how  ? 
Sufficiently  or  insufficiently  ?  The  answers  are  unsatis- 
factory. 

§  168.  The  Anglo-Saxon  had,  even  in  its  earliest 
stage,  the  following  sounds,  for  which  the  Latin  alphabet 
had  no  equivalent  signs  or  letters — 

1.  The  sound  of  the  th  in  thin. 


OF   ENGLISH  ALPHABET.  125 

2.  [The  sound  of  the  th  in  thine. 

It  had  certainly  these :  probably  others. 

§  169.  Expressive  of  these,  two  new  signs  were  intro- 
duced, viz.,  ]>  =  thm  thin,  and  $  =  th  in  thine. 

Wj  also  evolved  out  of  u,  was  either  an  original  im- 
provement of  the  Anglo-Saxon  orthographists,  or  a  mode 
of  expression  borrowed  from  one  of  the  allied  languages 
of  the  Continent.  Probably  the  latter  was  the  case ; 
since  we  find  the  following  passage  in  the  Latin  dedication 
of  Otfrid's  "  Krist :" — "  Hujus  enim  linguae  barbaries, 
ut  est  inculca  et  indisciplinabilis,  atque  insueta  capi  regu- 
lari  freno  grammaticae  artis,  sic  etiam  in  multis  dictis 
scriptu  est  difficilis  propter  literarum  aut  congeriem,  aut 
incognitam  sonoritatem.  Nam  interdum  tria  u  u  u  ut 
puto  quaerit  in  sono ;  priores  duo  consonantes,  ut  mihi 
videtur,  tertium  vocali  sono  manente." 

This  was,  as  far  as  it  went,  correct,  so  that  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  alphabet,  although  not  originally  meant  to  express 
a  Gothic  tongue  at  all.  answered  the  purpose  to  which  it 
was  applied  tolerably. 

§  170.  Change,  however,  went  on  ;  and  the  ortho- 
graphy which  suited  the  earlier  Anglo-Saxon  would  not 
suit  the  later ;  at  any  rate,  it  would  not  suit  the  language 
which  had  become  or  was  becoming,  English  ;  wherein 
the  sounds  for  which  the  Latin  alphabet  had  no  equivalent 
signs  increase.  Thus  there  is  at  present — 

1.  The  sound  of  the  sh  in  shine. 

2.  The  sound  of  the  z  in  azure. 

How  are  these  to  be  expressed  ?  The  rule  has  hitherto 
been  to  denote  simple  single  sounds,  by  simple  single 
signs,  and  where  such  signs  have  no  existence  already,  to 
originate  new  ones. 

To  combine  existing  letters,  rather  than  to  coin  a  new 
one,  has  only  been  done  rarely.  The  Latin  substitution 


126  HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

of  the  combination  th  for  the  simple  single  S-,  was  ex- 
ceptionable. It  was  a  precedent,  however,  which  now 
begins  to  be  followed  generally. 

§  171.  It  is  this  precedent  which  accounts  for  the 
absence  of  any  letter  in  English,  expressive  of  either  of 
the  sounds  in  question. 

§  172.  Furthermore,  our  alphabet  has  not  only  not 
increased  in  proportion  to  our  sound-system,  but  it  has 
decreased.  The  Anglo-Saxon  ]>  =  the  th  in  thin,  and  $ 
=  the  th  in  thine,  have  become  obsolete  ;  and  a  difference 
in  pronunciation,  which  our  ancestors  expressed,  we  over- 
look. 

The  same  precedent  is  at  the  bottom  of  this ;  a  fact 
which  leads  us  to — 

§  173.  The  Anglo-Norman  alphabet. — The  Anglo- 
Saxon  language  was  Gothic  :  the  alphabet,  Roman. 

The  Anglo-Norman  language  was  Roman  ;  the  alpha- 
bet, Roman  also. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  took  his  speech  from  one  source ; 
his  writing  from  another. 

The  Anglo-Norman  took  both  from  the  same. 

In  adapting  a  Latin  alphabet  to  a  Gothic  language, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  allowed  himself  more  latitude  than  the 
Anglo-Norman.  We  have  seen  that  the  new  signs  }>  and 
$  were  Anglo-Saxon. 

Now  the  sounds  which  these  letters  represent  did  not 
occur  in  the  Norman-French,  consequently  the  Norman- 
French  alphabet  neither  had  nor  needed  to  have  signs  to 
express  them  ;  until  after  the  battle  of  Hastings,  when 
it  became  the  Anglo-Norman  of  England. 

Then,  the  case  became  altered.  The  English  lan- 
guage influenced  the  Norman  orthography,  and  the 
Norman  orthography  the  English  language ;  and  the 
result  was,  that  the  simple  single  correct  and  distinctive 


OF  ENGLISH  ALPHABET.  127 

signs  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet,  became  replaced  by 
the  incorrect  and  indistinct  combination  th. 

This  was  a  loss,  both  in  the  way  of  theoretical  cor- 
rectness and  perspicuity. 

Such  is  the  general  view  of  the  additions,  ejections, 
changes  of  power,  and  changes  of  order  in  the  English 
alphabet.  The  extent,  however,  to  which  an  alphabet 
is  faulty,  is  no  measure  of  the  extent  to  which  an  ortho- 
graphy is  faulty ;  since  an  insufficient  alphabet  may,  by 
consistency  in  its  application,  be  more  useful  than  a  full 
and  perfect  alphabet"  unsteadily  applied. 

§  174.  One  of  our  orthographical  expedients,  viz.,  the 
reduplication  of  the  consonant  following,  to  express  the 
shortness  (dependence)  of  the  preceding  vowel,  is  as  old 
as  the  classical  languages :  terra,  ^aXacra-a.  Neverthe- 
less, the  following  extract  from  the  "  Ormulum  "  (written 
in  the  thirteenth  century)  is  the  fullest  recognition  of  the 
practice  that  I  have  met  with. 

And  whase  wilefln  shall  ]>is  hoc, 

Efft  o]?err  si]?e  writenn, 
Himm  bidde  ice  ]>att  hett  write  rihht, 

Swa  sum  ]>iss  boc  himm  taeche]?]) ; 
All  ]?werrt  utt  affterr  ]>att  itt  iss 

Oppo  YISS  firrste  bisne, 
Wi)>]>  all  swilc  rime  als  her  iss  sett, 

"Wij?}>  alse  fele  wordess : 
And  tatt  he  loke  well  ]>att  he 

An  boc-staff  write  twiggess* 
Eggwhaer  Jjser  itt  uppo  ]?iss  boc 

Iss  writenn  o  Ip&tt  wise : 
Loke  he  well  }?att  hett  write  swa, 

Forr  he  ne  magg  noht  elless, 
On  Englissh  writenn  rihht  te  word, 

J?att  wite  he  well  to  so]>e. 


*  Write  one  letter  twice. 


128 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


§  175.  The  order  of  the  alphabet. — In  the  history  of 
our  alphabet,  we  have  had  the  history  of  certain  changes 
in  the  arrangement,  as  well  as  of  the  changes  in  the 
number  and  power  of  its  letters.  The  following  question 
now  presents  itself:  viz.,  Is  there  in  the  order  of  the 
letters  any  natural  arrangement,  or  is  the  original  as 
well  as  the  present  succession  of  letters  arbitrary  and 
accidental  1  The  following  facts  suggest  an  answer  in  the 
affirmative.' 

The  order  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  is  as  follows : — 


Name. 

Sound. 

Name. 

Sound. 

1.  Aleph  .  . 

(  Either  a  vowel 
(  or  a  breathing. 

12.  Lamed  .  . 
13.  Mem  .  .  . 

.  L. 
.  M. 

2.  Beth  .  .  . 

.  B. 

14.  Nun   .  .  . 

.  N. 

3.  Gimel  .  . 

.  Gr,  as  in  gun. 

15.  Samech    . 

.  a  variety 

ofS. 

4.  Daleth  .  . 

.  D. 

j  Either 

a  vowel 

5   He 

j  Either  a  vowel 

16.  Ayn   .  .  . 

'    (or—  ? 

(  or  an  aspirate. 

17.  Pe  . 

.  P. 

6.   Vaw  .  .  . 

.  V. 

18.  Tsadi  .  .  . 

.  TS. 

7.  Zayn  .  .  . 

.  Z. 

19.  Kof.  .  .  . 

a  variety 

of  K. 

8.  Kheth  .  . 

.  a  variety  of  K. 

20.  Resh  .  .  . 

.  R. 

9.  Teth   .  .  . 

.  a  variety  of  T. 

21    Sin 

s 

10,  Yod   .  .  . 

.  L 

22.  Tau   .  .  . 

.  T. 

11.  Caph.  .  . 

.  K 

Let  beth,  vow,  and  pe  (b,  v,  p)  constitute  a  series 
called  series  P.  Let  gimel,  kheth,  and  kof  (g*,  kh,  k*) 
constitute  a  series  called  series  K.  Let  daleth,  teth,  and 
tau,  (d,  t\  t)  constitute  a  series  called  series  T.  Let 
aleph,  he,  and  ayn  constitute  a  series  called  the  vowel 
series.  Let  the  first  four  letters  be  taken  in  their  order. 

1.  Aleph of  the  vowel  series. 

2.  Beth of  series  P. 

3.  Gimel  ........  of  series  K. 

4.  Daleth  .  .  of  series  T. 


OF   ENGLISH   ALPHABET.  129 

Herein  the  consonant  of  series  B  comes  next  to  the 
letter  of  the  vowel  series  ;  that  of  series  K  follows ;  and 
in  the  last  place,  comes  the  letter  of  series  T.  After  this 
the  order  changes ;  daleth  being  followed  by  he  of  the 
vowel  series. 

5.  He of  the  vowel  series. 

6.  Vaw of  series  P. 

7.  Zayn 

8.  Kheth of  series  K 

9.  Teth of  series  T. 

In  this  second  sequence  the  relative  positions  of  v,  kh, 
and  t\  are  the  same  in  respect  to  each  other,  and  the 
same  in  respect  to  the  vowel  series.  The  sequence  itself 
is  broken  by  the  letter  zayn,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
principle  of  the  sequence  is  the  same.  Series  P  follows 
the  vowel,  and  series  T  is  farthest  from  it.  After  this  the 
system  becomes  but  fragmentary.  Still,  even  now,  pe,  of 
series  P,  follows  ayn;  tau,  of  series  T,  is  farthest  from 
it,  and  kof,  of  series  K,  is  intermediate. 

If  this  be  the  case,  and,  if  the  letters,  so  to  say,  cir- 
culate, the  alterations  made  in  their  order  during  the 
transfer  of  their  alphabet  from  Greece  to  Rome,  have 
had  the  unsatisfactory  effect  of  concealing  an  interesting 
arrangement,  and  of  converting  a  real,  though  some- 
what complex  regularity,  into  apparent  hazard  and  dis- 
order. 


130  QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Explain  the  terms  sharp,  explosive,  true  aspirate,  apparent  aspirate, 
broad,  dependent. 

2.  Exhibit  the  difference  between  the  quantity  of  syllables  and  the 
quantity  of  vowels. 

3.  Accentuate    the    following   words, — attribute    (adjective'),    survey 
(verb},  August  (the  month}. 

4.  Under  what  conditions  is  the  sound  of  consonants  doubled  ? 

5.  Exhibit,  in   a  tabular  form,  the  relations  of  the  a)  mutes,  b)  the 
vowels,  underlining  those  which  do  not  occur  in  English. 

6.  What  is  the  power  of  ph  in  Philip  ?  what  in  haphazard?     Illus- 
trate the  difference  fully. 

7.  Investigate   the   changes    by   which   the  words    picture,   nature, 
derived  from  the  Latin  pictura  and  natura,  are  sounded  pictshur  and 
natshur. 

8.  How  do  you  sound  the  combination  apd?    Why? 

9.  In  what  points  is  the  English  alphabet  insufficient,  redundant,  and 
inconsistent  ? 

10.  Why  is  z  (zoeta),  which  is  the  sixth  letter  in  the  Greek,  the  last  in 
the  English  alphabet  ? 


PART  IV. 

ETYMOLOGT. 

CHAPTER  I. 

ON  THE  PROVINCE  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

§  175.  THE  word  etymology,  derived  from  the  Greek, 
in  the  current  language  of  scholars  and  grammarians,  has 
a  double  meaning.  At  times  it  is  used  in  a  wide,  and  at 
times  in  a  restricted  sense. 

If  in  the  English  language  we  take  such  a  word  as 
fathers,  we  are  enabled  to  divide  it  into  two  parts ;  in 
other  words,  to  reduce  it  into  two  elements.  By  com- 
paring it  with  the  word  father,  we  see  that  the  s  is 
neither  part  nor  parcel  of  the  original  word.  Hence 
the  word  is  capable  of  being  analysed;  father  being 
the  original  primitive  word,  and  s  the  secondary  super- 
added  termination.  From  the  word  father,  the  word 
fathers  is  derived,  or  (changing  the  expression)  deduced, 
or  descended.  What  has  been  said  of  the  word  fathers 
may  also  be  said  of  fatherly,  fatherlike,  fatherless,  &c. 
Now,  from  the  word  father,  all  these  words  (fathers, 
fatherly,  fatherlike,  and  fatherless}  differ  in  form  and  in 
meaning.  To  become  such  a  word  as  fathers.  &c.,  the 


*32  PROVINCE   OF   ETYMOLOGY. 

word  father  is  changed.  Of  changes  of  this  sort,  it  is 
the  province  of  etymology  to  take  cognizance. 

§  177.  Compared  with  the  form  fathers,  the  word 
father  is  the  older  form  of  the  two.  The  word  father 
is  a  word  current  in  this  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
same  word  is  found  much  earlier,  under  different  forms, 
and  in  different  languages.  Thus,  in  the  Latin  lan- 
guage, the  form  was  pater;  in  Greek,  Trarijp.  Now, 
with  father  and.  fathers,  the  change  takes  place  within  the 
same  language,  whilst  the  change  that  takes  place  between 
pater  and  father  takes  place  within  different  languages. 
Of  changes  of  this  latter  kind  it  is,  also,  the  province  of 
etymology  to  take  cognizance. 

§  178.  In  its  widest  signification,  etymology  takes 
cognizance  of  the  changes  of  the  form  of  words.  How- 
ever, as  the  etymology  that  compares  the  forms  fathers 
and  father  is  different  from  the  etymology  that  compares 
father  and  pater,  we  have,  of  etymology,  two  sorts ; 
one  dealing  with  the  changes  of  form  that  words  un- 
dergo in  one  and  the  same  language  (father,  fathers),  the 
other  dealing  with  the  changes  that  words  undergo  in 
passing  from  one  language  to  another  (pater,  father). 

The  first  of  these  sorts  may  be  called  etymology  in 
the  limited  sense  of  the  word,  or  the  etymology  of  the 
grammarian.  In  this  case  it  is  opposed  to  orthoepy, 
orthography,  syntax,  and  the  other  parts  of  grammar. 
This  is  the  etymology  of  the  ensuing  pages. 

The  second  may  be  called  etymology  in  the  wide 
sense  of  the  word,  historical  etymology,  or  comparative 
etymology. 

§  179.  It  must  be  again  repeated  that  the  two  sorts 
of  etymology  agree  in  one  point,  viz.,  in  taking  cog- 
nizance of  the  changes  of  forms  that  words  undergo. 
Whether  the  change  arise  from  grammatical  reasons,  as 


PROVINCE   OF  ETYMOLOGY.  133 

father,  fathers,  or  from  a  change  of  language  taking 
place  in  the  lapse  of  time,  as  pater,  father,  is  a  matter  of 
indifference. 

In  the  Latin  pater,  and  in  the  English  father,  we  have 
one  of  two  things,  either  two  words  descended  or  derived 
from  each  other,  or  two  words  descended  or  derived  from 
a  common  original  source. 

In  fathers  we  have  a  formation  deduced  from  the 
radical  word  father. 

With  these  preliminaries  we  may  understand  Dr. 
Johnson's  explanation  of  the  word  etymology. 

"  ETYMOLOGY,  n.  s.  (etymologia,  Lat.)  ITUJLIO?  (etymos) 
true,  and  Xoyo?  (logos)  a  word. 

"  1.  The  descent  or  derivation  of  a  word  from  its 
original;  the  deduction  of  formations  from  the  radical 
word  •  the  analysis  of  compounds  into  primitives. 

"  2.  The  part  of  grammar  which  delivers  the  inflec- 
tions of  nouns  and  verbs" 


134  ON   GENDER. 


CHAPTER   II. 

ON    GENDER. 

§  180.  How  far  is  there  such  a  thing  as  gender  in  the 
English  language  ?  This  depends  upon  the  meaning  that 
we  attach  to  the  word. 

In  the  Latin  language  we  have  the  words  taurus  — 
bull,  and  vacca  =  cow.     Here  the  natural   distinction  of 
sex  is  expressed  hy  wholly  different  words.     With  this 
we  have  corresponding  modes  of  expression  in  English : 


Male.  Female. 

Bachelor  Spinster. 

Boar  Sow. 


Male.  Female. 

Horse  Mare. 

Ram  Ewe. 


Boy  Girl  Son  Daughter. 

Brother  Sister.  Uncle  Aunt 

Buck  Doe.  Father  Mother,  <fec. 

The  mode,  however,  of  expressing  different  sexes  by 
wholly  different  words  is  not  a  matter  of  gender.  The 
words  boy  and  girl  bear  no  etymological  relation  to  each 
other ;  neither  being  derived  from  the  other,  nor  in  any 
way  connected  with  it. 

§  181.  Neither  are  words  like  cock-sparrow ',  man- 
servant, he-goat,  &c.,  as  compared  with  hen-sparrow, 
maid-servant,  she-goat,  &c.,  specimens  of  gender.  Here 
a  difference  of  sex  is  indicated  by  the  addition  of  a  fresh 
term,  from  which  is  formed  a  compound  word. 

§  182.  In  the  Latin  words  genitrix  =  a  mother,  and 


ON   GENDER.  135 

genitor  =  a  father,  we  have  a  nearer  approach  to  gender. 
Here  the  difference  of  sex  is  expressed  by  a  difference 
of  termination  ;  the  words  genitor  and  genitrix  being  in 
a  true  etymological  relation,  i.  e.,  either  derived  from 
each  other,  or  from  some  common  source.  With  this 
we  have,  in  English  corresponding  modes  of  expression : 
e.g. 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Actor 

Actress. 

Lion 

Lioness. 

Arbiter 

Arbitress. 

Peer 

Peeress. 

Baron 

Baroness. 

Poet 

Poetesa 

Benefactor 

Benefactress. 

Sorcerer 

Sorceress. 

Count 

Countess. 

Songster 

Songstress 

Duke 

Duchess. 

Tiger 

Tigress. 

§  183.  This,  however,  in  strict  grammatical  lan- 
guage, is  an  approach  to  gender  rather  than  gender 
itself;  the  difference  from  true  grammatical  gender  being 
as  follows : — 

Let  the  Latin  words  genitor  and  genitrix  be  de- 
clined : — 

Sing.  Norn.  Genitor  Genitrix. 

Gen.  Genitor-is  Genitric-is. 

Dat.  Genitor-i  Geuitric-i. 

Ace.  Genitor-em  Genitric-e»t. 

Vbc.  Genitor  Genitrix. 

Plur.Nam.  Genitor-es  Genitric-es. 

Gen.  Genitor-wm  Genitric-wm. 

Dat.  Genitor-i&ws  Genitric-i&w*. 

Ace.  Genitor-es  Genitric-e*. 

Voc.  Genitor-es  Genitric-es. 

The  syllables  in  italics  are  the  signs  of  the  cases  and 
numbers.  Now  these  signs  are  the  same  in  each  word, 
the  difference  of  meaning  (or  sex)  not  affecting  them. 

§  184.    Contrast,   however,   with  the  words   genitor 


136  ON   GEXDER. 

and  genitrix  the  words  domina  =  a  mistress,  and  domi- 
nus  =  a  master. 

Sing.  Norn.  Domin-a  Domm-wj. 

Gen.    Domin-oB  Domin-i. 

Dat.    Domin-ce  Domin-o. 

Ace.    Domin-a?rc  Domin-wm. 

Voc.    Domin-a  Domin-e. 

Plur.Nom.  Domin-ee  Domin-i. 

Gen.    Domin-arMW  Domin-orum. 

Dat.    Domin-a&MS  Domin-i*. 

Ace.    Domin-as  Domin-o«. 

Voc.    Domin-oB  Domin-t. 

Here  the  letters  in  italics,  or  the  signs  of  the  cases 
and  numbers,  are  different ;  the  difference  being  brought 
about  by  the  difference  of  gender.  Now  it  is  very  evi- 
dent that,  if  genitrix  be  a  specimen  of  gender,  domina  is 
something  more. 

§  185.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  sort  of  definition, 
that  there  is  no  gender  where  there  is  no  affection  of  the 
declension:  consequently,  that,  although  we  have,  in 
English,  words  corresponding  to  genitrix  and  genitor, 
we  have  no  true  genders  until  we  find  words  corresponding 
to  dominus  and  domina. 

§  186.  The  second  element  in  the  notion  of  gender, 
although  I  will  not  venture  to  call  it  an  essential  one,  is 
the  following : — In  the  words  domina  and  dominus, 
mistress  and  master,  there  is  a  natural  distinction  of  sex  ; 
the  one  being  masculine,  or  male,  the  other  feminine,  or 
female.  In  the  words  sword  and  lance  there  is  no 
natural  distinction  of  sex.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
word  hasta,  in  Latin,  is  as  much  of  the  feminine  gender 
as  domina,  whilst  gladius  =  a  sword  is,  like  dominus,  a 
masculine  noun.  From  this  we  see  that,  in  languages 
wherein  there  are  true  genders,  a  fictitious  or  conven- 


ON   GENDER.  137 

tional  sex  is  attributed  even  to  inanimate  objects ;  in 
other  words,  sex  is  a  natural  distinction,  gender  a  gram- 
matical one. 

§  187.  In  §  185  it  is  written,  that  "  although  we 
have,  in  English,  words  corresponding  to  genitrix  and 
genitor,  we  have  no  true  genders  until  we  find  words 
corresponding  to  dominus  and  domina" — The  sentence 
was  intentionally  worded  with  caution.  Words  like 
dominus  and  domino,,  that  is,  words  where  the  declen- 
sion is  affected  by  the  sex,  are  to  be  found  even  in 
English. 

The  pronoun  him,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  English 
he,  as  compared  with  the  pronoun  her,  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  hed,  is  affected  in  its  declension  by  the  difference 
of  sex,  and  is  a  true,  though  fragmentary,  specimen  of 
gender.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  form  his  as  com- 
pared with  her. 

The  pronoun  it  (originally  hit),  as  compared  with  he, 
is  a  specimen  of  gender. 

The  relative  what,  as  compared  with  the  masculine 
who,  is  a  specimen  of  gender. 

The  forms  it  (for  hit)  and  he  are  as  much  genders  as 
hoc  and  hie,  and  the  forms  hoc  and  hie  are  as  much  genders 
as  bonum  and  bonus. 

§  188.  The  formation  of  the  neuter  gender  by  the 
addition  of  -t,  in  words  like  wha-t,  i-t,  and  tha-t,  occurs 
in  other  languages.  The  -t  in  tha-t  is  the  -d  in  istu-d, 
Latin,  and  the  -t  in  ta-t,  Sanskrit. 

§  189.  In  the  Mreso-Gothic  and  Scandinavian,  the 
adjectives  form  the  neuters  in  -t,  in  Old  High  German  in 
-z  (ts),  and  in  Modern  German  in  -s  (derived  from  -z) — 
Mosso-Gothic,  blind-ata ;  Icel.,  blind-t ;  Old  High  Ger- 
man, plint-ez,  M.  G.  blind-es  =  ccBC-um. 

Caution. —  Which,  is  not  the  neuter  of  who. 


138  OX   GEXDER. 

§  190.  Just  as  there  are  in  English  fragments  of  a 
gender  modifying  the  declension,  so  are  there,  also, 
fragments  of  the  second  element  of  gender ;  viz.,  the 
attribution  of  sex  to  objects  naturally  destitute  of  it. 
The  sun  in  his  glory,  the  moon  in  her  wane,  are  ex- 
amples of  this.  A  sailor  calls  his  ship  she.  A  husband- 
man, according  to  Mr.  Cobbett,  does  the  same  with  his 
plough  and  working  implements : — "  In  speaking  of  a 
ship  we  say  she  and  her.  And  you  know  that  our 
country-folks  in  Hampshire  call  almost  every  thing  he  or 
she.  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  country  labourers 
give  the  feminine  appellation  to  those  things  only  which 
are  more  closely  identified  with  themselves,  and  by  the 
qualities  or  conditions  of  which  their  own  efforts,  and 
their  character  as  workmen,  are  affected.  The  mower 
calls  his  scythe  a  she,  the  ploughman  calls  his  plough  a 
she  ;  but  a  prong,  or  a  shovel,  or  a  harrow,  which  passes 
promiscuously  from  hand  to  hand,  and  which  is  appro- 
priated to  no  particular  labourer,  is  called  a  he." — 
"  English  Grammar,"  Letter  v. 

§  191.  Now,  although  Mr.  Cobbett's  statements  may 
account  for  a  sailor  calling  his  ship  she,  they  will  not  ac- 
count for  the  custom  of  giving  to  the  sun  a  masculine, 
and  to  the  moon  a  feminine,  pronoun,  as  is  done  in  the 
expressions  quoted  in  the  last  section  ;  still  less  will  it 
account  for.  the  circumstance  of  the  Germans  reversing 
the  gender,  and  making  the  sun  feminine,  and  the  moon 
masculine. 

§  192.  Let  there  be  a  period  in  the  history  of  a  language 
wherein  the  sun  and  moon  are  dealt  with,  not  as  inani- 
mate masses  of  matter,  but  as  animated  divinities.  Let 
there,  in  other  words,  be  a  time  when  dead  things  are 
personified,  and  when  there  is  a  mythology.  Let  an 
object  like  the  sun  be  deemed  a  male,  and  an  object  like 


ON  GENDER.  J39 

the  moon,  a  female,  deity.  "We  may  then  understand  the 
origin  of  certain  genders.  • 

The  Germans  say  the  sun  in  her  glory;  the  moon  in 
his  wane.  This  difference  between  the  usage  of  the  two 
languages,  like  so  many  others,  is  explained  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  classical  languages  upon  the  English. — 
"  Mundilfori  had  two  children  ;  a  son,  Mani  (Moon), 
and  a  daughter,  S61  (Sun)" — Such  is  an  extract  out  of 
an  Icelandic  mythological  work,  viz.,  the  prose  Edda.  In 
the  classical  languages,  however,  Phoebus  and  Sol  are 
masculine,  and  Luna  and  Diana  feminine.  Hence  it  is 
that,  although  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old-Saxon  the  sun  is 
feminine,  it  is  in  English  masculine. 

Philosophy,  charity,  &c.,  or  the  names  of  abstract 
qualities  personified,  take  a  conventional  sex,  and  are  fem- 
inine from  their  being  feminine  in  Latin. 

As  in  all  these  words  there  is  no  change  of  form,  the 
consideration  of  them  is  a  point  of  rhetoric,  rather  than  of 
etymology. 

§  193.  The  remainder  of  this  chapter  is  devoted  to 
miscellaneous  remarks  upon  the  true  and  apparent  gen- 
ders of  the  English  language. 

1.  With  the  false  genders  like  baron,  baroness,  it  is  a 
general  rule  that  the  feminine  form  is  derived  from  the 
masculine,  and  not  the  masculine  from  the  feminine ;  as 
peer,  peeress.     The  words  widower,  gander,  and  drake 
are  exceptions.     For  the  word  wizard,  from  witch,  see  the 
section  on  augmentative  forms. 

2.  The  termination  -ess,  in  which  so  large  a  portion  of 
our  feminine  substantives  terminate,  is  not  of  Saxon  but 
of  classical  origin,  being  derived  from  the  termination  -ix, 
genitrix. 

3.  The  words  shepherdess,  huntress,  and  hostess  are 
faulty ;  the  radical  part  of  the  word  being  Germanic,  and 


140  ON   GENDER. 

the  secondary  part  classical:  indeed,  in  strict  English 
Grammar,  the  termination  -ess  has  no  place  at  all.  It  is 
a  classic,  not  a  Gothic,  element. 

4.  The  termination  -inn,  is  current  in  German,  as  the 
equivalent  to  -ess,  and  as  a  feminine  affix  (freund  =  a 
friend;  freundinn=a  female  friend).     In  English  it 
occurs  only  in  a  fragmentary  form ; — e.  g.,  in  vixen,  a 
true  feminine  derivative  from  fox  =fuchsinn,  German. 

Bruin  =  the  bear,  may  be  either  a  female  form,  as  in 
Old  High  German  pero  — =  a  he-bear,  pirinn  =  a  she-bear  ; 
or  it  may  be  the  Norse  form  bjbrn  =  a  bear,  male  or 
female. 

Caution. — Words  like  margravine  and  landgravine 
prove  nothing,  being  scarcely  naturalised. 

5.  The  termination  -sir,  as  in  webster,  songster,  and 
baxter,  was  originally  a  feminine  affix.     Thus,  in  Anglo- 
Saxon, 


Sangere,  a  male  singer 
Bacere,  a  male  baker 
Fi^elere,  a  male  fiddler 
Vebbere,  a  male  weaver 
Raedere,  a  male  reader 
Seamere,  a  male  seamer 


were  oppo- 
sed to 


Sangestre,  a  female  singer. 
Bacestre,  a  female  baker. 
FiSelstre,  a  female  fiddler. 
Vebbestre,  a  female  weaver. 
Raedestre,  a  female  reader. 
.  Seamestre,  a  female  seamer. 


The  same  is  the  case  in  the  present  Dutch  of  Holland : 
e.  g.,  spookster  =  a  female  fortune-teller  ;  baxster  =  a 
baking-woman  ;  waschster  =•=  a  washerwoman.  The  word 
spinster  still  retains  its  original  feminine  force. 

6.  The    words    songstress    and    seamstress,   besides 
being,  as  far  as  concerns  the  intermixture  of  languages,  in 
the  predicament  of  shepherdess,  have,  moreover,  a  double 
feminine  termination ;  1st.  -str,  of  Germanic,  2nd.  -ess,  of 
classical,  origin. 

7.  In  the  word  heroine  we  have  a  Greek  termination, 
just  as  -ix  is  a  Latin,  and  -inn  a  German  one.     It  must 


ON   GENDER.  141 

not,  however,  be  considered  as  derived  from  hero,  by  any 
process  of  the  English  language,  but  be  dealt  with  as  a 
separate  importation  from  the  Greek  language. 

8.  The  form  deaconness  is  not  wholly  unexceptionable  ; 
since  the  termination  -ess  is  of  Latin,  the  root  deacon  of 
Greek  origin :  this  Greek  origin  being  rendered  all  the 
more  conspicuous  by  the  spelling,  deacon  (from  diaconos), 
as  compared  with  the  Latin  decanus. 

9.  Goose,  gander. — One   peculiarity  in   this  pair  of 
words  has  already  been  indicated.     In  the  older  forms  of 
the  word  goose,  such  as  %^,  Greek  ;  anser,  Latin  ;  gans, 
German,  as  well  as  in  the  derived  form  gander,  we  have 
the  proofs  that,  originally,  there  belonged  to  the  word  the 
sound  of  the  letter  n.    In  the  forms  oSou?,  o&Wo9,  Greek  ; 
dens,  dentis,  Latin;  zahn,  German;  tooth,  English,  we 
find  the  analogy  that  accounts  for  the  ejection  of  the  n, 
and  the  lengthening  of  the  vowel  preceding.     With  re- 
spect, however,  to  the  d  in  gander,  it  is  not  easy  to  say 
whether  it  is  inserted  in  one  word  or  omitted  in  the  other. 
Neither  can  we  give  the  precise  power  of  the  -er.     The 
following   forms   occur  in   the  diiferent    Gothic   dialects. 
Gans,  fern.  ;  ganazzo,  masc.,  Old  High  German — gds, 
f. ;  gandra,  m.,  Anglo-Saxon — gas,  Icelandic,  f. ;  gaas, 
Danish,  f. ;    gassi,  Icelandic,   m. ;    gasse,  Danish,  m. — 
ganser,  ganserer,  gansart,  gcinserich,  gander,  masculine 
forms  in  different  New  German  dialects. 

10.  Observe,   the   form  gcinserich,   has   a  masculine 
termination.     The  word  tauberich,m  provincial  New  Ger- 
man, has  the  same  form  and  the  same  power.     It  denotes 
a  male  dove ;  taube,  in  German,  signifying  a  dove.     In 
gcinserich  and  tc'iuberich,  we  find  preserved  the  termina- 
tion -rich  (or  rik),  with  a  masculine  power.     Of  this  ter- 
mination we  have  a  remnant,  in  English,  preserved  in  the 
curious  word  drake.     To  duck  the  word  drake  has  no  ety- 


142  ON   GENDER. 

mological  relation  whatsoever.  It  is  derived  from  a  word 
with  which  it  has  but  one  letter  in  common  'r  viz.,  the 
Latin  anas  =  a  duck.  Of  this  the  root  is  anat-,  as  seen 
in  the  genitive  case  anatis.  In  Old  High  German  we 
find  the  form  anetrekho  =  a  drake  ;  in  provincial  New  High 
German  there  is  enterich  and  dntrecht,  from  whence  come 
the  English  and  Low  German  form,  drake. 

11.  Peacock,  peahen. — In  these  compounds,  it  is  not 
the  word  pea  that  is  rendered  masculine  or  feminine  by 
the  addition  of  cock  and  hen,  but  it  is  the  words  cock  and 
hen  that  are  modified  by  prefixing  pea. 


THE  NUMBERS.  143 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  NUMBERS. 

§  194.  IN  the  Greek  language  the  word  patcer  signifies 
a  father,  denoting  one,  whilst  pater e  signifies  two  fathers, 
denoting  a  pair,  and  thirdly,  pateres  signifies  fathers, 
speaking  of  any  number  beyond  two.  The  three  words, 
patcBr,  patere,  and  pateres,  are  said  to  be  in  different 
numbers,  the  difference  of  meaning  being  expressed  by  a 
difference  of  form.  These  numbers  have  names.  The 
number  that  speaks  of  one  is  the  singular,  the  number 
that  speaks  of  two  is  the  dual  (from  the  Latin  word  duo 
—  two),  and  the  number  that  speaks  of  more  than  two  is 
the  plural. 

All  languages  have  numbers,  but  all  languages  have 
not  them  to  the  same  extent.  The  Hebrew  has  a  dual, 
but  it  is  restricted  to  nouns  only.  It  has,  moreover,  this 
peculiarity  ;  it  applies,  for  the  most  part,  only  to  things 
which  are  naturally  double,  as  the  two  eyes,  the  two  hands, 
&c.  The  Latin  has  no  dual  number,  except  the  natural 
one  in  the  words  ambo  and  duo. 

§  195.  The  question  presents  itself, — to  what  extent 
have  we  numbers  in  English  ?  Like  the  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  Latin,  we  have  a  singular  and  a  plural.  Like  the 
Latin,  and  unlike  the  Greek  and  Hebrew,  we  have  no 
dual. 

§  196.  Different  from  the  question,  to  what  degree 
have  we  numbers  ?  is  the  question, — over  what  extent  of 


144  THE   NUMBERS. 

our  language  have  we  numbers  ?  This  distinction  has 
already  been  foreshadowed  or  indicated.  The  Greeks, 
who  said  typtd  =  I  beat,  typteton  =  ye  two  beat,  typtomen 
=  we  beat,  had  a  dual  number  for  their  verbs  as  well  as 
their  nouns ;  while  the  Hebrew  dual  was  limited  to  the 
nouns  only.  In  the  Greek,  then,  the  dual  number  is 
spread  over  a  greater  extent  of  the  language  than  in  the 
Hebrew. 

There  is  no  dual  in  the  present  English.  It  has  been 
seen,  however,  that  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  there  was  a  dual. 
But  the  Anglo-Saxon  dual,  being  restricted  to  the  person- 
al pronouns  (wit  =  we  two  ;  git  =  ye  two),  was  not  co-ex- 
tensive with  the  Greek  dual. 

There  is  no  dual  in  the  present  German.  In  the  an- 
cient German  there  was  one. 

In  the  present  Danish  and  Swedish  there  is  no  dual. 
In  the  Old  Norse  and  in  the  present  Icelandic  a  dual 
number  is  to  be  found. 

From  this  we  learn  that  the  dual  number  is  one  of 
those  inflections  that  languages  drop  as  they  become  mod- 
ern. 

§  197.  The  numbers,  then,  in  the  present  English  are 
two,  the  singular  and  the  plural.  Over  what  extent  of 
language  have  we  a  plural?  The  Latins  say  bonus 
pater  =  a  good  father  ;  boni  patres  =good  fathers.  In 
the  Latin,  the  adjective  bonus  changes  its  form  with  the 
change  of  number  of  the  substantive  that  it  accompanies. 
In  English  it  is  only  the  substantive  that  is  changed. 
Hence  we  see  that  in  the  Latin  language  the  numbers 
were  extended  to  adjectives,  whereas  in  English  they 
are  confined  to  the  substantives  and  pronouns.  Com- 
pared with  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  present  English  is  in 
the  same  relation  as  it  is  with  the  Latin.  In  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  there  were  plural  forms  for  the  adjectives. 


THE  NUMBERS.  145 

§  198.  Respecting  the  formation  of  the  plural,  the  cur- 
rent rule  is,  that  it  is  formed  from  the  singular  by  adding 
s,  as  father,  fathers.  This,  however,  is  by  no  means 
a  true  expression.  The  letter  s  added  to  the  word  father, 
making  it  fathers,  is  s  to  the  eye  only.  To  the  ear  it  is 
z.  The  word  sounds  father z.  If  the  s  retained  its  sound 
the  spelling  would  be  father  ce.  In  stags,  lads,  &c.,  the 
sound  is  slagz,  ladz.  The  rule,  then,  for  the  formation 
of  the  English  plurals,  rigorously,  though  somewhat 
lengthily  expressed,  is  as  follows. —  The  plural  is  formed 
from  the  singular,  by  adding  to  words  ending  in  a 
vowel,  a  liquid  or  flat  mute,  the  flat  lene  sibilant  (z) ; 
and  to  words  ending  in  a  sharp  mute,  the  sharp  lene 
sibilant  (s):  e.g.  (the  sound  of  the  word  being  expressed), 
pea,  peaz ;  tree,  treez ;  day,  dayz ;  hill,  hillz ;  hen, 
henz  ;  gig,  gigz  ;  trap,  traps ;  pit,  pits  ;  stack,  stacks. 

§  199.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  English  plural  some 
further  remarks  are  necessary. 

a.  In  the  case  of  words  ending  in  b,  v,  d,  the  th  in 
thine  =  $,  or  g,  a  change  either  of  the  final  flat  consonant, 
or  of  the  sharp  5  affixed,  was  not  a  matter  of  choice  but  of 
necessity ;    the   combinations   abs,   avs,   ads,   af>s,    ags, 
being  unpronounceable. 

b.  Whether  the  first  of  the  two  mutes  should  be  ac- 
commodated to  the  second  (aps,  afs,  ats,  a^s,  aks),  or  the 
second  to  the  first  (abz,  avz,  adz,  afoz,  agz),  is  deter- 
mined by  the  habit  of  the  particular  language  in  ques- 
tion ;  and,  with  a  few  apparent  exceptions  it  is  the  rule  of 
the  English  language  to  accommodate  the  second  sound  to 
the  first,  and  not  vice  versa. 

c.  Such  combinations  as  peas,  trees,  hills,  hens,  &c., 
(the  s  preserving  its  original  power,  and  being  sounded  as 
is  written  peace,  treece,  hillce,  hence),  being  pronounceable, 
the  change  from  5  to   z,  in  words   so  ending,  is  not  a 


146  THE  NUMBERS. 

matter  determined  by  the  necessity  of  the  case,  hut  by  the 
habit  of  the  English  language. 

d.  Although  the  vast  majority  of  our  plurals  ends,  not 
in  s,  but  in  z,  the  original  addition  was  not  z,  but  s. 
This  we  infer  from  three  facts  :  1.  From  the  spelling  ;  2. 
from  the  fact  of  the  sound  of  z  being  either  rare  or  non- 
existent in  Anglo-Saxon  ;  3.  from  the  sufficiency  of  the 
causes  to  bring  about  the  change. 

It  may  now  be  seen  that  some  slight  variations  in  the 
form  of  our  plurals  are  either  mere  points  of  orthography, 
or  else  capable  of  being  explained  on  very  simple  eu- 
phonic principles. 

§  200.  Boxes,  churches,  judges,  lashes,  kisses,  blazes, 
princes. — Here  there  is  the  addition,  not  of  the  mere 
letter  s,  but  of  the  syllable  -es.  As  5  cannot  be  imme- 
diately added  to  s,  the  intervention  of  a  vowel  becomes 
necessary ;  and  that  all  the  words  whose  plural  is  formed 
in  -es  really  end  either  in  the  sounds  of  s,  or  in  the  allied 
sounds  of  z,  sh,  or  zh,  may  be  seen  by  analysis  ;  since 
x  =  ks,  ch  =  tsh,  and  j  or  ge  =  dzh,  whilst  ce,  in  prince,  is 
a  mere  point  of  orthography  for  s. 

Monarchs,  heresiarchs. — Here  the  ch  equals  not  tsh, 
but  k,  so  that  there  is  no  need  of  being  told  that  they  do 
not  follow  the  analogy  of  church,  &c. 

Cargoes,  echoes. — From  cargo  and  echo,  with  the 
addition  of  e  ;  an  orthographical  expedient  for  the  sake  of 
denoting  the  length  of  the  vowel  o. 

Beauty,  beauties;  key,  keys. — Like  the  word  cargoes, 
&c.,  these  forms  are  points,  not  of  etymology,  but  of 
orthography. 

Pence. — The  peculiarity  of  this  word  consists  in  having 
a  flat  liquid  followed  by  the  sharp  sibilant  s  (spelt  ce), 
contrary  to  the  rule  given  above.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
a  contracted  form  from  pennies ;  in  the  second  place,  its 


THE  NUMBERS.  147 

sense  is  collective  rather  than  plural ;  in  the  third  place, 
the  use  of  the  sharp  sibilant  lene  distinguishes  it  from 
pens,  sounded  penz.  That  its  sense  is  collective  rather 
than  plural,  we  learn  from  the  word  sixpence,  which, 
compared  with  sixpences,  is  no  plural,  but  a  singular 
form. 

Dice. — In  respect  to  its  form,  peculiar  for  the  reason 
that  pence  is  peculiar. — We  find  the  sound  of  5  after  a 
vowel,  where  that  of  z  is  expected.  This  distinguishes 
dice  for  play,  from  dies  (diz)  for  coining.  Dice,  perhaps, 
like  pence,  is  collective  rather  than  plural. 

In  geese,  lice,  and  mice,  we  have,  apparently,  the 
same  phenomenon  as  in  dice,  viz.,  a  sharp  sibilant  (s) 
where  &flat  one  (z)  is  expected.  The  s,  however,  in  these 
words  is  not  the  sign  of  the  plural,  but  the  last  letter  of 
the  original  word. 

Alms. — This  is  no  true  plural  form.  The  s  belongs 
to  the  original  word,  Anglo-Saxon,  celmesse;  Greek, 
eXe?7/uo<ruz/77  ;  just  as  the  5  in  goose  does.  How  far  the 
word,  although  a  true  singular  in  its  form,  may  have  a 
collective  signification,  and  require  its  verb  to  be  plural, 
is  a  point  not  of  etymology,  but  of  syntax.  The  same  is 
the  case  with  the  word  riches,  from  the  French  richesse. 
In  riches  the  last  syllable  being  sounded  as  ez,  increases 
its  liability  to  pass  for  a  plural. 

News,  means,  pains. — These,  the  reverse  of  alms  and 
riches,  are  true  plural  forms.  How  far,  in  sense,  they 
are  singular  is  a  point  not  of  etymology,  but  of  syntax. 

Mathematics,  metaphysics,  politics,  ethics,  optics,  phy- 
sics.— The  following  is  an  exhibition  of  my  hypothesis 
respecting  these  words,  to  which  I  invite  the  reader's 
criticism.  All  the  words  in  point  are  of  Greek  origin, 
and  all  are  derived  from  a  Greek  adjective.  Each  is 
the  name  of  some  department  of  study,  of  some  art,  or 


148  THE  NUMBEKS. 

of  some  science.  As  the  words  are  Greek,  so  also  are 
the  sciences  which  they  denote,  either  of  Greek  origin, 
or  else  such  as  flourished  in  Greece.  Let  the  arts  and 
sciences  of  Greece  be  expressed  in  Greek,  rather  by  a 
substantive  and  an  adjective  combined,  than  by  a  simple 
substantive ;  for  instance,  let  it  be  the  habit  of  the  lan- 
guage to  say  the  musical  art,  rather  than  music.  Let 
the  Greek  for  art  be  a  word  in  the  feminine  gender; 
e.  g.,  rexvr)  (tekhncB),  so  that  the  musical  art  be  ?}  povcrlicr) 
T6%vr)  (hce  mousikce  tekhncz).  Let,  in  the  progress  of  lan- 
guage (as  was  actually  the  case  in  Greece),  the  article 
and  substantive  be  omitted,  so  that,  for  the  musical  art, 
or  for  music,  there  stand  only  the  feminine  adjective, 
fjLovviKT).  Let  there  be,  upon  a  given  art  or  science,  a 
series  of  books,  or  treatises ;  the  Greek  for  book,  or 
treatise,  being  a  neuter  substantive,  /3i/3\iov  (bibliori). 
Let  the  substantive  meaning  treatise  be,  in  the  course  of 
language,  omitted,  so  that  whilst  the  science  of  physics  is 
called  <^vcriKr)  (fysikce),  physic,  from  77  QVO-LKT)  re^vr),  a 
series  of  treatises  (or  even  chapters)  upon  the  science 
shall  be  called  <f>v<ri/ca  (fysika)  or  physics.  Now  all  this 
was  what  happened  in  Greece.  The  science  was  denoted 
by  a  feminine  adjective  singular,  as  (frvaUr)  (fysicce),  and 
the  treatises  upon  it,  by  the  neuter  adjective  plural,  as 
(f)v<ri,Ka  (fysika).  The  treatises  of  Aristotle  are  generally 
so  named.  To  apply  this,  I  conceive,  that  in  the  middle 
ages  a  science  of  Greek  origin  might  have  its  name  drawn 
from  two  sources,  viz.,  from  the  name  of  the  art  or  science, 
or  from  the  name  of  the  books  wherein  it  was  treated.  In 
the  first  case  it  had  a  singular  form,  as  physic,  logic  ;  in 
the  second  place  a  plural  form,  as  mathematics,  metaphy- 
sics, optics. 

In  what  number  these  words,  having  a  collective  sense, 
require  their  verbs  to  be,  is  a  point  of  syntax. 


THE  NUMBERS.  149 

§  201.  The  plural  form  children  (child-er-en)  requires 
particular  notice. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  a  double  plural ;  the  -en  being 
the  -en  in  oxen,  whilst  the  simpler  form  child-er  occurs  in 
the  old  English,  and  in  certain  provincial  dialects. 

Now,  what  is  the  -er  in  child-er  ? 

In  Icelandic,  no  plural  termination  is  commoner  than 
that  in  -r  ;  as  geisl-ar  = flashes,  tung-ur  =  tongues,  &c. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  the  Icelandic  that  explains  the 
plural  form  in  question. 

Besides  the  word  childer,  we  collect  from  the  Old 
High  German  the  following  forms  in  -r  : — 

Hus-ir,  Houses, 

Chalp-ir,  Calves, 

Lemp-ir,  Lambs, 

Plet-ir,  Blades  of  grass, 

Eig-ir,  Eggs, 

and  others,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is  the  fact  of  their  all 
being  of  the  neuter  gender. 

Now,  the  theory  respecting  this  form  which  is  pro- 
pounded by  Grimm  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  -r  represents  an  earlier  -s. 

2.  Which  was,  originally,  no  sign  of  a  plural  number, 
but  merely  a  neuter  derivative    affix,   common    to    the 
singular  as  well  as  to  the  plural  number. 

3.  In  this  form  it  appears  in  the  Moeso-Gothic :  ag-is 
=fear  (whence  ague  =  shivering),  hat-is  =  hate,  riqv-is 
=  smoke  (reek).     In  none  of  these  words  is  the  -s  radical, 
and  in  none  is  it  limited  to  the  singular  number. 

To  these  doctrines,  it  should  be  added,  that  the  reason 
why  a  singular  derivational  affix  should  become  the  sign 
of  the  plural  number,  lies,  most  probably,  in  the  collective 
nature  of  the  words  in  which  it  occurs :  Husir  =  a 
collection  of  houses,  eiger  =  a  collection  of  eggs,  eggery 


150  THE  NUMBERS. 

or  eyry.  In  words  like  yeoman-r-y  and  Jew-r-y,  the  -r 
has,  probably,  the  same  origin,  and  is  collective. 

In  Wicliffe  we  find  the  form  lamb-r-en,  which  is  to 
lamb  as  children  is  to  child. 

§  202.  The  form  in  -en. — In  the  Anglo-Saxon  no 
termination  of  the  plural  number  is  more  common  than 
-n  :  tungan,  tongues  ;  steorran,  stars.  Of  this  termina- 
tion we  have  evident  remains  in  the  words  oxen,  hosen, 
shoon,  eyne,  words  more  or  less  antiquated.  This,  per- 
haps, is  TIO  true  plural.  In  welk-in  =  the  clouds,  the 
original  singular  form  is  lost. 

§  203.  Men,  feet,  teeth,  mice,  lice,  geese. — In  these  we 
have  some  of  the  oldest  words  in  the  language.  If  these 
were,  to  a  certainty,  true  plurals,  we  should  have  an 
appearance  somewhat  corresponding  to  the  so-called  weak 
and  strong  tenses  of  verbs  ;  viz.,  one  series  of  plurals 
formed  by  a  change  of  the  vowel,  and  another  by  the 
addition  of  the  sibilant.  The  word  kye,  used  in  Scotland 
for  cows,  is  of  the  same  class.  The  list  in  Anglo-Saxon 
of  words  of  this  kind  is  different  from  that  of  the  present 
English. 

Sing.  Plur. 

Freond Fr/nd Friends. 

Feond Fynd Foes. 

Kiht Niht Nights. 

Boc B6c Books. 

Burh Byrig Burghs. 

Br6c Br6c Breeches. 

Turf Ty'rf Turves. 

§  204.  Brethren. — Here  there  are  two  changes.  1. 
The  alteration  of  the  vowel.  2.  The  addition  of  -en.  Mr. 
Guest  quotes  the  forms  brethre  and  brothre  from  the  Old 
English.  The  sense  is  collective  rather  than  plural. 

Peasen=  pulse. — As  children  is  a  double  form  of  one 


THE  NUMBERS,  151 

sort  (r-f  en),  so  is  peasen  a  double  form  of  another 
(s  -f-  en) ;  pea,  pea-s,  pea-s-en.  Wallis  speaks  to  the  sin- 
gular power  of  the  form  in  -s ; — "Dicunt  nonnulli  a 
pease,  piuraliter  peasen;  at  melins,  singulariter  a  pea, 
pluraliter  pease.'7 — P.  77.  He  might  have  added,  that, 
theoretically,  pease  was  the  proper  singular  form;  as 
shown  by  the  Latin  pis-um. 
Pullen  =  poultry. 

Lussurioso. — What  ?  three-and-twenty  years  in  law  ? 
Vendice. — I  have  known  those  who  have  been  five-and-fifty,  and  all 
about  pullen  and  pigs. — "  Revenger's  Tragedy,"  iv.  1. 

If  this  were  a  plural  form,  it  would  be  a  very  anoma- 
lous one.  The  -en,  however,  is  no  more  a  sign  of  the.  plu- 
ral than  is  the  -es  in  rich-es  (richesse.)  The  proper  form 
is  in  -am  or  -eyn. 

A  false  theefe, 
That  came  like  a  false  fox,  my  pullain  to  kill  and  mischeefe. 

"  Gammer  Gurton's  Needle,"  v.  2. 

Chickens. — A  third  variety  of  the  double  inflection 
(en  -f-  s),  with  the  additional  peculiarity  of  the  form  chick- 
en being  used,  at  present,  almost  exclusively  in  the  singu- 
lar number,  although,  originally,  it  was,  probably,  the 
plural  of  chick.  So  Wallis  considered  it : — "  At  olim 
etiam  per  -en  vel  -yn  formabant  pluralia ;  quorum  pauca 
admodum  adnuc  retinemus.  Ut,  an  ox,  a  chick,  plurali- 
tur  oxen,  chicken  (sunt  qui  dicunt  in  singulari  chicken,  et 
in  plurali  chickens}"  Chick,  chick-en,  chick-en-s. 

Fern. — According  to  Wallis  the  -n  in  fer-n  is  the  -en 
in  oxen,  in  other  words  a  plural  termination  : — "  A  fere 
(filiz)  pluraliter  fern  (verum  nunc  plerumque  fern  utro- 
que  numero  dicitur,  sed  et  in  plurali  ferns)  ;  nam  fere  et 
feres  prope  obsoleta  sunt."  Subject  to  this  view,  the  word 
fer-n-s  would  exhibit  the  same,  phenomenon  as  the  word 


152  THE   NUMBERS. 

chicke  n-s.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  Wallis's  view 
be  correct.  A  reason  for  believing  the  -n  to  be  radical  is 
presented  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  fearn,  and  the  Old 
High  German,  varam. 

Women. — Pronounced  wimmen,  as  opposed  to  the 
singular  form  woomman.  Probably  an  instance  of  accom- 
modation. 

Houses. — Pronounced  houz-ez.  The  same  peculiarity 
in  the  case  of  5  and  z,  as  occurs  between  /  and  v  in  words 
like  life,  lives,  &c. 

Paths,  youths. — Pronounced  padhz,  yoodhz.  The 
same  peculiarity  in  the  case  of  )>  and  $,  as  occurs  between 
5  and  z  in  the  words  house,  houses.  "  Finita  in  /  ple- 
rumque  alleviantur  in  plurali  numero,  substituendo  v  ;  ut 
wife,  wives,  <fcc.  Eademque  alleviatio  est  etiam  in  s  et  th, 
quamvis  retento  charactere,  in  house,  cloth,  path." 

§  205.  The  words  sounded  houz-ez,  padh-z,  yoodh-z, 
taken  along  with  the  extract  from  Wallis,  lead  us  to  an 
important  class  of  words. — §  199  b. 

§  206.  Certain  words  ending  in  f,  like  loaf,  wife,  &c. 

The  regular  plural  of  these  would  be  loafs,  wifes,  pro- 
nounced loafce,  wifce,  (fee. 

But  this  is  not  the  case.  The  sound  added  to  the  final 
/  is  the  sound  of  z,  not  that  of  s. 

And  the  plurals  are  sounded  loavz,  wivz  (wivez, 
weivz). 

Furthermore,  the  sound  of  the  final  /  is  changed  to 
that  of  v  ;  in  other  words,  the  first  of  the  two  letters  is 
accommodated  to  the  second,  in  violation  to  the  rule  of 
§  199  b. 

Can  this  be  explained?  Perhaps  it  can.  In  the 
Swedish  language  the  letter  f  has  the  sound  of  v ;  so 
that  staf  is  sounded  stav. 

Again,  in  the  allied  languages  the  words  in  question 


THE  NUMBEKS.  153 

end  in  the  flat  (not  the  sharp)  mute, — weib,  laub,  calb, 
halb,  stab,  &c.  =  wife,  leaf,  calf,  half,  staff. 

This  makes  it  probable  that,  originally,  the  /  in  wife, 
loaf,  &c.,  was  sounded  as  v  ;  so  that  the  singular  forms 
were  wive,  loav. 

If  so,  the  plural  is  perfectly  normal ;  it  being  the 
singular  form  on  which  the  irregularity  lies. 


154  THE    CASES. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON   THE    CASES. 

§  207.  THE  extent  to  which  there  are,  in  the  English 
language,  cases,  depends  on  the  meaning  which  we  attach 
to  the  word  case.  In  the  term  a  house  of  a  father,  the 
idea  expressed  by  the  words  of  a  father,  is  an  idea  of 
relation  between  them  and  the  word  house.  This  idea  is 
an  idea  of  property  or  possession.  The  relation  between 
the  words  father  and  house  may  be  called  the  possessive 
relation.  This  relation,  or  connexion,  between  the  two 
words,  is  expressed  by  the  preposition  of. 

In  the  term  a  father's  house,  the  idea  is,  there  or 
thereabouts,  the  same  ;  the  relation  or  connexion  between 
the  two  words  being  the  same.  The  expression,  however, 
differs.  In  a  father's  house  the  relation,  or  connexion,  is 
expressed,  not  by  a  preposition,  but  by  a  change  of  form, 
father  becoming  father's. 

He  gave  the  house  to  a  father. — Here  the  words 
father  and  house  stand  in  another  sort  of  relationship, 
the  relationship  being  expressed  by  the  preposition  to. 
The  idea  to  a  father  differs  from  the  idea  of  a  father,  in 
being  expressed  in  one  way  only ;  viz.,  by  the  preposition. 
There  is  no  second  mode  of  expressing  it  by  a  change  of 
form,  as  was  done  with  father's. 

The  father  taught  the  child. — Here  there  is  neither 
preposition  nor  change  of  form.  The  connexion  between 


THE    CASES.  155 

the  words  father  and  child  is  expressed  by  the  arrange- 
ment only. 

§  208.  Now  if  the  relation  alone  between  two  words  con- 
stitute a  case,  the  words  a  child,  to  a  father,  of  a  father, 
and  father's,  are  all  equally  cases  ;  of  which  one  may  be 
called  the  accusative,  another  the  dative,  a  third  the  geni- 
tive, and  so  on. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  relationship  alone  does  not  con- 
stitute a  case.  Perhaps  there  is  a  necessity  of  either  the 
addition  of  a  preposition  (as  in  of  a  father),  or  of  a 
change  in  form  (as  in  fathers).  In  this  case  (although 
child  be  not  so)  father's,  of  a  father,  and  to  a  father,  are 
all  equally  cases. 

Now  it  has  long  been  remarked,  that  if  the  use  of  a 
preposition  constitute  a  case,  there  must  be  as  many  cases 
in  a  language  as  there  are  prepositions,  and  that  "  above  a 
man,  beneath  a  man,  beyond  a  man,  round  about  a  man, 
within  a  man,  without  a  man,  shall  be  cases  as  well  as 
of  a  man,  to  a  man,  and  with  a  man" 

§  209.  For  etymological  purposes,  therefore,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  limit  the  meaning  of  the  word  case ;  and,  as  a 
sort  of  definition,  it  may  be  laid  down  that  where  there  is 
no  change  of  form,  there  is  no  case.  With  this  remark, 
the  English  language  may  be  compared  with  the  Latin. 

Latin.  English. 

Sing.   Nom.    Pater  ...        a  father. 
Gen.     Patris  .         .        .        .a  father's. 
Dat.      Patri  to  a  father. 

Ace.      Patrem         .        .        .a  father. 

Abl.      Patre  .        .        .        from  a  father. 

Here,  since  in  the  Latin  language  there  are  five 
changes  of  form,  whilst  in  English  there  are  but  two, 
there  are  (as  far,  at  least,  as  the  word  pater  and  father 


156  THE   CASES. 

are  concerned)  three  more  cases  in  Latin  than  in  Eng- 
lish. 

It  does  not,  however,  follow  that  because  in  the  partic- 
ular word  father  we  have  but  two  cases,  there  may  not  be 
other  words  wherein  there  are  more  than  two. 

§  210.  Neither  does  it  follow,  that  because  two  words 
may  have  the  same  form  they  are  necessarily  in  the 
same  case ;  a  remark  which  leads  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween a  real  and  an  accidental  identity  of  form. 

In  the  language  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  the  genitive 
cases  of  the  words  smtfb,  ende,  and  dceg,  were  respective- 
ly, smiles,  etides,  and  dceges ;  whilst  the  nominative 
plurals  were,  smi^as^  endas,  and  dagos. 

But  when  a  change  took  place,  by  which  the  vowel  of 
the  last  syllable  in  each  word  was  ejected,  the  result 
was,  that  the  forms  of  the  genitive  singular  and  the 
nominative  plural,  originally  different,  became  one  and 
the  same ;  so  that  the  identity  of  the  two  cases  is  an 
accident. 

This  fact  relieves  the  English  grammarian  from  a 
difficulty.  The  nominative  plural  and  the  genitive  singu- 
lar are,  in  the  present  language  of  England,  identical ;  the 
apostrophe  in  father's  being  a  mere  matter  of  orthogra- 
phy. However,  there  was  once  a  difference.  This  modi- 
fies the  previous  statement,  which  may  now  stand  thus  : — 
for  a  change  of  case  there  must  be  a  change  of  form 
existing  or  presumed. 

§  211.  The  number  of  our  cases  and  the  extent  of 
language  over  which  they  spread. — In  the  English  lan- 
guage there  is  undoubtedly  a  nominative  case.  This 
occurs  in  substantives,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  (father, 
pood,  he)  equally.  It  is  found  in  both  numbers. 

$  212.  Accusative. — Some  call  this  the  objective  case. 
The  words  him  and  them  (whatever  they  may  have  been 


THE   CASES.  157 

originally)  are  now  (to  a  certain  extent)  true  accusatives. 
The  accusative  case  is  found  in  pronouns  only.  Thee, 
me,  us,  and  you  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  true  accusa- 
tives. These  are  accusative  thus  far :  1.  They  are  not 
derived  from  any  other  case.  2.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  forms  I,  my,  &c.  3.  Their  meaning  is  accusa- 
tive. Nevertheless,  they  are  only  imperfect  accusatives. 
They  have  no  sign  of  case,  and  are  distinguished  by 
negative  characters  only. 

One  word  in  the  present  English  is  probably  a  true 
accusative  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  viz.,  the  word 
twain  =  two.  The  -n  in  twai-n  is  the  ~n  in  hine  =  him 
and  hwone  =  whom.  This  we  see  from  the  following 
inflection : — 

Neut.       Masc.          Fern. 
N.  and  Ace.        Twa,      Twegen,      TVa. 

AblandDat.  Twam,  Twae'm. 

Gen.  Twegra,  Twega. 

Although  nominative  as  well  as  accusative,  I  have  little 
doubt  as  to  the  original  character  of  twegen  being  accu- 
sative. The  -n  is  by  no  means  radical ;  besides  which, 
it  is  the  sign  of  an  accusative  case,  and  is  not  the  sign  of 
a  nominative. 

§  213.  Dative. — In  the  antiquated  word  whilom  (at 
times],  we  have  a  remnant  of  the  old  dative  in  -m.  The 
sense  of  the  word  is  abverbial ;  its  form,  however,  is  that 
of  a  dative  case. 

§  214.  Genitive. — Some  call  this  the  possessive  case. 
It  is  found  in  substantives  and  pronouns  (father's,  his), 
but  not  in  adjectives.  It  is  formed  like  the  nominative 
plural,  by  the  addition  of  the  lene  sibilant  (father, 
fathers  ;  buck,  bucks) ;  or  if  the  word  end  in  -s,  by  that 
of  -es  (boxes,  judges,  &c.)  It  is  found  in  both  numbers : 


158  THE   CASES. 

the  men's  hearts  ;  the  children's  bread.  In  the  plural 
number,  however,  it  is  rare ;  so  rare,  indeed,  that  where- 
ever  the  plural  ends  in  s  (as  it  almost  always  does),  there 
is  no  genitive.  If  it  were  not  so,  we  should  have  such 
words  as  fatherses,  fozeses,  princeses,  (fee. 

§  215.  Instrumental. — The  following  extracts  from 
Rask's  "  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar,"  teach  us  that  there 
exist  in  the  present  English  two  powers  of  the  word  spelt 
t-h-e,  or  of  the  so-called  definite  article — "  The  demonstra- 
tive pronouns  are  ]>&t,  se,  se6  (id,  is,  ea),  which  are  also 
used  for  the  article  ;  and  ]>is,  }>es,  }>e6s  (hoc,  hie,  hcec). 
They  are  thus  declined  : — 

Neut.       Masc.      Fern.  Newt.       Masc.      Fern. 

Sing    N.    )>aet          se  se6  ]>is          J>es          )>e6s. 

A.    ]>aet          ]>one       )>4  ]>is          )>isne       }>4s. 


Abl  >/  >ze're  >ise  >isse 

D.  ££m          )>ae're  )>isum        Jjisse. 

G.  }>&s  J>ae're  ]>ises          J>isse. 


Plur.  N.  and  A.  >4  >as. 

Abl.  and  D.  J»am  ]?isum. 

G.  >^ra.  >issa. 


"  The  uideclinable  \e  is  often  used  instead  of  }>cet,  se, 
se6,  in  all  cases,  but  especially  with  a  relative  significa- 
tion, and,  in  later  times,  as  an  article.  Hence  the  En- 
glish article  the. 

"  \y]  seems  justly  to  be  received  as  a  proper  ablativits 
instrumenti,  as  it  occurs  often  in  this  character,  even  in 
the  masculine  gender  ;  as,  mid,  \y{  a]>e  =  with  that  oath 
("  Inae  Leges,"  53).  And  in  the  same  place  in  the  dative, 
on  ]>ce'm  a]>e  =  in  that  oath"  —  Pp.  56,  57. 

Hence  the  the  that  has  originated  out  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  \y*  is  one  word  ;  whilst  the  the  that  has  originated 


THE   CASES.  159 

out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  J>e,  another.  The  latter  is  the 
common  article  :  the  former  the  the  in  expressions  like  all 
the  more,  all  the  better  =  more  by  all  that,  better  by  all 
that,  and  the  Latin  phrases  eo  majus,  eo  melius. 

That  why  is  in  the  same  case  with  the  instrumental 
the  (=  \y )  may  be  seen  from  the  following  Anglo-Saxon 
inflexion  of  the  interrogative  pronoun  : — 

Neut.  Masc. 

N.     Hwzet  Hwa 

A.    Hwaet  Hwone  (hwsene). 


Abl  Hwi 

D.  Hwam  (hwae'm)    , 

G.  Hwses. 

Hence,  then,  in  the  and  why  we  have  instrumental 
ablatives,  or,  simply,  instrumentals. 

§  216.  The  determination  of  cases. — How  do  we  de- 
termine cases  1  In  other  words,  why  do  we  call  him 
and  them  accusatives  rather  than  datives  or  genitives? 
By  one  of  two  means  ;  viz.,  either  by  the  sense  or  the 
form. 

Suppose  that  in  the  English  language  there  were  ten 
thousand  dative  cases  and  as  many  accusatives.  Suppose, 
also,  that  all  the  dative  cases  ended  in  -m,  and  all  the 
accusatives  in  some  other  letter.  It  is  very  evident  that, 
whatever  might  be  the  meaning  of  the  words  him  and 
them  their  form  would  be  dative.  In  this  case  the  mean- 
ing being  accusatives,  and  the  form  dative,  we  should 
doubt  which  test  to  take. 

My  own  opinion  is,  that  it  would  be  convenient  to 
determine  cases  by  the  form  of  the  word  alone  ;  so  that, 
even  if  a  word  had  a  dative  sense  only  once,  where  it  had 
an  accusative  sense  ten  thousand  times,  such  a  word 
should  be  said  to  be  in  the  dative  case.  Now  the  words 


160  THE  CASES. 

him  and  them  (to  which  we  may  add  whom)  were  once 
dative  cases ;  *  -m  in  Anglo-Saxon  being  the  sign  of  the 
dative  case.  In  the  time  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  their  sense 
coincided  with  their  form.  At  present  they  are  dative 
forms  with  an  accusative  meaning.  Still,  as  the  word 
give  takes  after  it  a  dative  case,  we  have,  even  .now,  in 
the  sentence,  give  it  him,  give  it  them,  remnants  of  the 
old  dative  sense.  To  say  give  it  to  him,  to  them,  is  un- 
necessary and  pedantic:  neither  do  I  object  to  the  expres- 
sion, whom  shall  I  give  it  ?  If  ever  the  formal  test  be- 
come generally  recognised  and  consistently  adhered  to, 
him,  them,  and  whom  will  be  called  datives  with  a  lati- 
tude of  meaning ;  and  then  the  only  true  and  unequivocal 
accusatives  in  the  English  language  will  be  the  forms  you, 
thee,  us,  me,  and  twain. 

§  217.  Analysis  of  cases. — In  the  word  children's  we 
are  enabled  to  separate  the  word  into  three  parts.  1.  The 
root  child.  2.  The  plural  signs  r  and  en.  3.  The  sign  of 
the  genitive  case,  s.  In  this  case  the  word  is  said  to  be 
analysed,  since  we  not  only  take  it  to  pieces,  but  also  give 
the  respective  powers  of  each  of  its  elements;  stating 
which  denotes  the  case,  and  which  the  number.  Although 
it  is  too  much  to  say  that  the  analysis  of  every  case  of 
every  number  can  be  thus  effected,  it  ought  always  to  be 
attempted. 

§  218.  The  true  nature  of  the  genitive  form  in  Js. — It 
is  a  common  notion  that  the  genitive  form  father's  is  con- 
tracted from  father  his.  The  expression  in  our  liturgy, 
for  Jesus  Christ  his  sake,  which  is  merely  a  pleonastic 
one,  is  the  only  foundation  for  this  assertion.  As  the 
idea,  however,  is  not  only  one  of  the  commonest,  but  also 
one  of  the  greatest  errors  in  etymology,  the  following 

*  This  explains  the  words,  "  Whatever  they  may  have  been  origin- 
ally," and  "  to  a  certain  extent,"  in  §  212. 


THE  CASES.  161 

three  statements  are  given  for  the  sake  of  contradiction 
to  it. 

1.  The  expression  the  Queen's  Majesty  is  not  capable 
of  being  reduced  to  the  Queen  his  Majesty. 

2.  In  the  form  his  itself,  the  5  has  precisely  the  power 
that  it  has  in  father's,  &c.     Now  his  cannot  be  said  to 
arise  out  of  he  +  his. 

3.  In  the  Slavonic,  Lithuania,  and  classical  tongues, 
the  genitive  ends  in  s,  just  as  it  does  in  English ;  so  that 
even   if   the   words  father  his   would    account    for   the 
English  word  father's,  it  would  not  account  for  the  San- 
skrit genitive  pad-as,  of  a  foot ;  the  Zend  dughdhar-s,  of  a 
daughter ;  the  Lithuanic  dugter-s ;  the  Greek  oSovr-os ; 
the  Latin  dent-is,  &c. 


162  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

§  219.  /,  we,  us,  me,  thou,  ye. — These  constitute  the 
true  personal  pronouns.  From  he,  she,  and  it,  they  differ 
in  being  destitute  of  gender. 

These  latter  words  are  demonstrative  rather  than  per- 
sonal, so  that  there  are  in  English  true  personal  pronouns 
for  the  first  two  persons  only. 

§  220.  The  usual  declension  of  the  personal  pronouns 
is  exceptionable.  /  and  me,  thou  and  ye,  stand  in  no 
etymological  relations  to  each  other.  The  true  view  of  the 
words  is,  that  they  are  not  irregular  but  defective.  /  has 
no  oblique,  and  me  no  nominative  case.  And  so  it  is  with 
the  rest. 

§  221.  You. — As  far  as  the  practice  of  the  present 
mode  of  speech  is  concerned,  the  word  you  is  a  nomina- 
tive form ;  since  we  say  you  move,  you  are  moving,  you 
were  speaking. 

Why  should  it  not  be  treated  as  such  ?  There  is  no 
absolute  reason  why  it  should  not.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
form  for  you  was  eow,  for  ye,  ge.  Neither  bears  any 
sign  of  case  at  all,  so  that,  form  for  form,  they  are  equally 
and  indifferently  nominative  and  accusative.  Hence,  it, 
perhaps,  is  more  logical  to  say  that  a  certain  form  (you), 
is  used  either  as  a  nominative  or  accusative,  than  to  say 


PEESONAL  PRONOUN'S.  163 

that  the  accusative  case  is  used  instead  of  a  nominative. 
It  is  clear  that  you  can  be  used  instead  of  ye  only  so  far 
as  it  is  nominative  in  power. 

Ye. — As  far  as  the  evidence  of  such  expressions  as 
get  on  with  ye  is  concerned,  the  word  ye  is  an  accusative 
form.  The  reasons  why  it  should  or  should  not  be  treated 
as  such  are  involved  in  the  previous  paragraph. 

§  222.  Me. — carrying  out  the  views  just  laid  down, 
and  admitting  you  to  be  a  nominative,  or  gwosi-nomina- 
tive  case,  we  may  extend  the  reasoning  to  the  word  me, 
and  call  it  also  a  secondary  or  equivocal  nominative  ;  in- 
asmuch as  such  phrases  as  it  is  me  it  =  is  I  are  com- 
mon. 

Now  to  call  such  expressions  incorrect  English  is  to 
assume  the  point.  No  one  says  that  c'est  moi  is  bad 
French,  and  that  c'est  je  is  good. 

§  223.  Caution. — Observe,  however,  that  the  expres- 
sion it  is  me  =  it  is  I  will  not  justify  the  use  of  it  is  him, 
it  is  her  =  it  is  he  and  it  is  she.  Me,  ye,  you,  are  what 
may  be  called  indifferent  forms,  i.  e.,  nominative  as  much 
as  accusative,  and  accusative  as  much  as  nominative. 
Him  and  her,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  indifferent.  The 
-m  and  -r  are  respectively  the  signs  of  cases  other  than 
the  nominative. 

§  224.  Again :  the  reasons  which  allow  the  form  you 
to  be  considered  as  a  nominative  plural,  on  the  strength  of 
its  being  used  for  ye,  will  not  allow  it  to  be  considered  a 
nominative  singular  on  the  strength  of  its  being  used  for 
thou. 

§  225.  In  phrases  like  you  are  speaking,  &c.,  even 
when  applied  to  a  single  individual,  the  idea  is  really 
plural ;  in  other  words,  the  courtesy  consists  in  treating 
one  person  as  more  than  one,  and  addressing  him  as  such, 


164  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

rather  than  in  using  a  plural  form  in  a  singular  sense.  It 
is  certain  that,  grammatically  considered,  you  =  thou  is  a 
plural,  since  the  verb  with  which  it  agrees  is  plural : — you 
are  speaking,  not  you  art  speaking. 


EELATIVE    PRONOUN".  165 


CHAPTER    VI. 

ON  THE  TRUE    REFLECTIVE  PRONOUN  IN  THE  GOTHIC  LANGUAGES, 
AND    ON    ITS    ABSENCE    IN    ENGLISH. 

§  226.  A  TRUE  reflective  pronoun  is  wanting  in  Eng- 
lish. In  other  words,  there  are  no  equivalents  to  the 
Latin  forms  sui,  sibi,  se. 

Nor  yet  are  there  any  equivalents  to  the  forms  suuSj 
sua,  suum :  since  his  and  her  are  the  equivalents  to  ejus 
and  illius,  and  are  not  adjectives  but  genitive  cases. 

At  the  first  view,  this  last  sentence  seems  unnecessary. 
It  might  seem  superfluous  to  state,  that,  if  there  were  no 
such  primitive  form  as  se,  there  could  be  no  such  second- 
ary form  as  suus. 

Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Suus  might  exist  in 
the  language,  and  yet  se  be  absent ;  in  other  words,  the 
derivative  form  might  have  continued  whilst  the  original 
one  had  become  extinct. 

Such  is  really  the  case  with  the  Old  Frisian.  The 
reflective  personal  form,  the  equivalent  to  se,  is  lost, 
whilst  the  reflective  possessive  form,  the  equivalent  to 
suus,  is  found.  In  the  Modern  Frisian,  however,  both 
forms  are  lost. 


166          DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS,  &C. 

§  227.  THE  demonstrative  pronouns  are,  1.  He,  it. 
2.  She.  3.  This,  that.  4.  The. 

He.  she.  and  it,  generally  looked  on  as  personal,  are 
here  treated  as  demonstrative  pronouns,  for  the  following 
reasons. 

1.  The  personal  pronouns  form  an  extremely  natural 
class,  if  the  pronouns  of  the  two  first  persons  he  taken 
hy  themselves.     This  is  not  the   case  if  they  be  taken 
along  with  he,  it,  and  she. 

2.  The  idea  expressed  by  he,  it,  and  she  is  naturally 
that  of  demonstrativeness.     In  the  Latin  language  is,  ea, 
id  ;  ille,  ilia,  illud  ;  hie,  hcec,  hoc,  are  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns in  sense,  as  well  as  in  declension. 

3.  The  plural  forms  they,  them,  in  the  present  English, 
are  the  plural  forms  of  the  root  of  that,  a  true  demon- 
strative pronoun  ;  so  that  even  if  he,  she,  and  it  could  be 
treated  as  personal  pronouns,  they  could  not. 

4.  The  word  she  has  grown  out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
se6.     Now  se6  was  in  Anglo-Saxon  the  feminine  form  of 
the  definite  article ;  the  definite  article  itself  being  ori- 
ginally a  demonstrative  pronoun. 

§  228.  Compared  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  the  present 
English  stands  as  follows  : — 

>S7ie.-^-The  Anglo-Saxon  form  he6,  being  lost  to  the 
language,  is  replaced  by  the  feminine  article  se6. 


DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS.  167 

§  229.  Her. — This  is  a  case,  not  of  the  present  she, 
but  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  he6  :  so  that  she  may  be  said  to 
be  defective»in  the  oblique  cases,  and  her  to  be  defective 
in  the  nominative. 

Him. — A  dative  form,  which  has  replaced  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  hine.  When  used  as  a  dative,  it  was  neuter  as 
well  as  masculine. 

His. — Originally  neuter  as  well  as  masculine.  Now 
as  a  neuter,  replaced  by  its — "  et  quidem  ipsa  vox  his,  ut 
et  interrogativum  whose,  nihil  aliud  sunt  quam  hee's, 
who's,  ubi  s  omnino  idem  praestat  quod  in  aliis  possessivis. 
Similiter  autem  his  pro  hee's  eodem  errore  quo  nonnun- 
quam  bin  pro  been  ;  item  whose  pro  who's  eodem  errore 
quo  done,  gone,  knowne,  growne,  &c.,  pro  doen,  goen, 
knowen,  vel  do>n,  grfn,  know'n,  grow'n  ;  utrobique  contra 
analogiam  linguae  ;  sed  usu  defenditur." — Wallis,  c.  v. 

It. — Changed  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  hit,  by  the  ejec- 
tion of  h.  The  t  is  no  part  of  the  original  word,  but  a 
sign  of  the  neuter  gender,  forming  it  regularly  from  he. 
The  same  neuter  sign  is  preserved  in  the  Latin  id  and 
illud. 

Its. —  In  the  course  of  time  the  nature  of  the  neuter  sign 
t,  in  it,  the  form  being  found  in  but  a  few  words,  became 
misunderstood.  Instead  of  being  looked  on  as  an  affix,  it 
passed  for  part  of  the  original  word.  Hence  was  formed 
from  it  the  anomalous  genitive  its  superseding  the  Saxon 
his.  The  same  was  the  case  with — 

Hers. — The  r  is  no  part  of  the  original  word,  but  the 
sign  of  the  dative  case.  These  formations  are  of  value  in 
the  history  of  cases. 

§  230.  Theirs. — In  the  same  predicament  with  hers 
and  its  ;  either  the  case  of  an  adjective,  or  a  case  formed 
from  a  case. 

Than  or  then,  and  there. — Although  now   adverbs, 


168         DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

they  were  once  demonstrative  pronouns,  in  a  certain  case 
and  in  a  certain  gender,  viz.,  than  and  then  masculine  ac- 
cusative and  singular,  there  feminine  dative  and  singular. 
§  231.  An  exhibition  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  declension 
is  the  best  explanation  of  the  English.  Be  it  observed, 
that  the  cases  marked  in  italics  are  found  in  the  present 
language. 

Se,  sed  (=she). 

Of  this  word  we  meet  two  forms  only,  both  of  the 
singular  number,  and  both  in  the  nominative  case ;  viz., 
masc.,  se  ;  fern.  se6  (=  the).  The  neuter  gender  and  the 
other  cases  of  the  article  were  taken  from  the  pronoun 
]>cet  (=  that). 

II. 

J>cet  (=that,  the),  and  Ipis  (=this). 


Neut. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Sing.  Nom.    ]>cet 

— 

— 

}>is 

>es 

>eos. 

Ace.      }>cet 

lp  one 

>a 

>is 

]>isne 

>as. 

Abl.      \y 

]>y 

]>aSre. 

}>ise 

>ise 

Jjisse. 

Dot.      ]>ain 

>am 

Ipa/re. 

)>isum 

Jjisiun 

J»isse. 

Gen.      JJSBS 

>a» 

]>a?re. 

}>ises 

]>ises 

j?isse. 

V 

j 

^ 

j 

Plur.  Nom.  Ace. 

K 

]>ds. 

Abl.  Dat. 

}>dm. 

j>isuin. 

Gen. 

d  ra. 

^issa. 

III. 

Hit  (—  it),  (he  —  he),  he6  (=  she). 

Sing.  Nom.        hit      he      he6. 
Ace.          hit      hine  hL 
Dat.          him     him    hire. 
Gen.          his      his     hire. 


Plur.  Nom.  Ace.         hi 

Dat.  him  (heom). 

Gen.  hira  (heora). 

IV. 

]>e  (the) — Undeclined,  and  used  for  all  cases  and  genders. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS.         169 

§  232.    These. — Here  observe — 

1st.  That  the  s  is  no  inflection,  but  a  radical  part  of 
the  word,  like  the  5  in  geese. 

2nd.  That  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  is  Ipas. 

These  facts  create  difficulties  in  respect  to  the  word 
these.  Mr.  Guest's  view  is,  perhaps,  the  best ;  viz.,  that 
the  plural  element  of  the  word  is  the  final  -e,  and  that 
this  -e  is  the  old  English  and  Anglo-Saxon  adjective 
plural ;  so  that  thes-e  is  formed  from  this,  as  gode  ( = 
boni)  is  from  god  (  =  bonus). 

The  nominative  plural  in  the  Old  English  adjective 
ended  in  e- ;  as, 

Singular.  Plural. 

M.    F.    N.  M.    F.    N. 

God,    god,   god,  gode. 

In  Old  English  MSS.  this  plural  in  -e  is  general.  It 
occurs  not  only  in  adjectives  and  pronouns  as  a  regular 
inflection,  but  even  as  a  plural  of  the  genitive  his,  that 
word  being  treated  as  a  nominative  singular;  so  that 
hise  is  formed  from  his,  as  sui  from  suus,  or  as  eji  might 
have  been  formed  from  ejus  ;  provided  that  in  the  Latin 
language  this  last  word  had  been  mistaken  for  a  nominative 
singular.  The  following  examples  are  Mr.  Guest's. 

1.  In  these  lay  a  gret  multitude  of  syke  men,  blinde,  crokid,  and  drye. 
—  Wicli/e,  Joa  v. 

2.  In  all  the  orders  foure  is  non  that  can 
So  much  of  dalliance  and  faire  language, 
He  hadde  ymade  ful  many  a  marriage — 
His  tippet  was  ay  farsed  ful  of  knives, 
And  pinnes  for  to  given  faire  wives. 

Chau.,  ProL 

3.  And  al  the  cuntre  of  Judee  wente  out  to  him,  and  alle  men  of 
Jerusalem, —  Wicli/e,  Mark  i. 

9 


170         DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

4.  He  ghyueth  lif  to  alle  men,  and  brething,  and  alle  thingis ;  and 
made  of  von  al  kynde  of  men  to  inhabit  on  al  the  face  of  the  erthe. — 
Wicli/e,  Dedis  of  Apostlis,  xviL 

5.  That  fadres  sone  which  alle  thinges  wrought; 
And  all,  that  wrought  is  with  a  skilful  thought, 
The  Gost  that  from  the  fader  gan  precede, 
Hath  souled  hem. 

Chau.,  The  Second  Nonnes  Tale. 

6.  And  alle  we  that  ben  in  this  aray 
And  maken  all  this  lamentation, 
"We  losten  alle  our  husbondes  at  that  toun. 

Chau.,  The  Knightes  Tales. 

7.  A  good  man  bryngeth  forth  gode  thingsis  of  good  tresore. —  Wicli/e, 
Mattxii 

8.  So  every  good  tree  maketh  gode  fruytis,  but  an  yvel  tree  maketh 
yvel  fruytes.     A  good  tree  may  not  mak  yvel  fruytis,  neither  an  yvel  tree 
may  make  gode  fruytis.     Every  tree  that  maketh  not  good  fruyt  schal  be 
cut  down. —  Wicli/e,  Matt  viL 

9.  Men  loveden  more  darknessis  than  light  for  her  werkes  weren  yvele, 
for  ech  man  that  doeth  yvel,  hateth  the  light. —  Wicli/e,  John  iii 

10.  And  othere  seedis  felden  among  thornes  wexen  up  and  strangliden 
hem,  and  othere  seedis  felden  into  good  lond  and  gaven  fruyt,  sum  an 
hundred   fold,   another   sixty  fold,  an  other  thritty  fold,  <fec. —  Wicli/e, 
Matt  xiii. 

11.  Yet  the  while  he  epake  to  the  puple  lo  his  mother  and  hise 
brethren  stonden  withoute  forth. —  Wicli/e,  Mat  xii. 

12.  And  hise  disciplis  camen  and  taken  his  body. —  Wicli/e,  Matt, 
xiv. 

13.  When  thise  Bretons  tuo  were  fled  out  of  this  lond 
Ine  toke  his  feaute  of  alle,  Ac. 

Rob  Brunne,  p.  3. 

14.  This  is  thilk  disciple  that  bereth  witnessyng  of  these  thingis,  and 
wroot  them. —  Wicli/e,  John  XXL 

15.  Seye  to  us  in  what  powers  thou  doist  these  thingis,  and  who  is  he 
that  gaf  to  thee  thi*  power. —  Wicli/e,  Luke  xx. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS.  171 

§  233.  Those. — Perhaps  the  Anglo-Saxon  \d  with  s 
added.  Perhaps  the  \&s  from  \is  with  its  power  altered. 
Rask,  in  his  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar,  writes  "  from  \is 
we  find,  in  the  plural,  \<RS  for  \CLS.  From  which  after- 
wards, with  a  distinction  in  signification,  these  and  those."11 
The  English  form  they  is  illustrated  by  the  Anglo-Saxon 
form  '*ba,ge  =  \ii.  The  whole  doctrine  of  the  forms  in 
question  has  yet  to  assume  a  satisfactory  shape. 

The  present  declension  of  the  demonstrative  pronouns 
is  as  follows  : — 

A. 
She. — Defective  in  the  oblique  cases. 

B. 
He. 

Masc.  Neut.  Fern. 

Norn.  He  ...  It  (from  hit)        ...       — 

Ace.  Him         ...  It  Her. 

Dat.  Him          ...  —  Her. 

Gen.  His  ...  Her. 

Secondary  Gen. -—  ...  Its  Hera. 

No  plural  form. 

0. 
L 

That. 
Neut.  Masc.  Fern. 

Sing.  N<m.          That         ...  — 

Ace.           That         ...            Than,*  then*     ...        — 
Dat.  —  ...  —  There* 


Instrumental  ...  Thence. 

Plur.Nam They.f 

Ace.        Them.f 

Gen.       Their.f 

Secondary  Gen Theirs,  f 


*  Used  as  adverbs.         f  Used  as  the  plurals  o£  he,  the,  and  it. 


172          DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

IL 
Singular,  This.  Plural,  These. 

III. 
Those. 

IV. 

The— UndeclineA 


RELATIVE  AND  OTHER  PRONOUNS.       173 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE    RELATIVE,    INTERROGATIVE,    AND    CERTAIN    OTHER 
PRONOUNS. 

§  234.  IN  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns, 
who,  what,  whom,  whose,  we  have,  expressed  by  a  change 
of  form,  a  neuter  gender,  what ;  a  dative  case  whom  ;  and 
a  genitive  case,  whose  :  the  true  power  of  the.  s  (viz.,  as 
the  sign  of  a  case)  being  obscured  by  the  orthographical 
addition  of  the  e  mute. 

To  these  may  be  added,  1.  the  adverb  why,  originally 
the  ablative  form  hvi  (quo  modo  ?  qua  via  ?).  2.  The 
adverb  where,  a  feminine  dative,  like  there.  3.  When, 
a  masculine  accusative  (in  Anglo-Saxon  hwcene),  and 
analogous  to  then. 

The  two  sounds  in  the  Danish  words  hvi,  hvad,  &c., 
and  the  two  sounds  in  the  English,  what,  when  (Anglo- 
Saxon,  hwcet,  hwcBne)  account  for  the  forms  why  and 
how.  In  the  first  the  w  alone,  in  the  second  the  h  alone, 
is  sounded.  The  Danish  for  why  is  hvi,  pronounced 
vi. 

§  235.  The  following  remarks  (some  of  them  not 
strictly  etymological)  apply  to  a  few  of  the  remaining 
pronouns. 

Same. — Wanting  in  Anglo-Saxon,  where  it  was  re- 
placed by  the  word  ylca,  ylce.  Probably  derived  from  the 
Norse. 

Self. — In  myself,  thyself,  herself,  ourselves,  yourselves, 


174  OF   RELATIVE,    INTERROGATIVE, 

a  substantive  (or  with  a  substantival  power),  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  genitive  case.  In  himself  and  themselves  an 
adjective  (or  with  an  adjectival  power),  and  preceded  by 
an  accusative  case.  Itself  is  equivocal,  since  we  cannot 
say  whether  its  elements  are  it  and  self,  or  its  and  self ; 
the  s  having  been  dropped  in  utterance.  It  is  very 
evident  that  either  the  form  like  himself,  or  the  form 
like  thyself,  is  exceptionable  ;  in  other  words,  that  the 
use  of  the  word  is  inconsistent.  As  this  inconsistency 
is  as  old  as  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  history  of  the  word 
gives  us  no  elucidation.  In  favour  of  the  forms  like 
myself  (self  being  a  substantive),  are  the  following 
facts  : — 

1.  The  plural  word  selves,  a  substantival,  and  not  an 
adjectival  form. 

2.  The  Middle  High  German  phrases  min  Up,  din  lip, 
my  body,  thy  body,  equivalent  in  sense  to  myself,  thyself. 

3.  The  circumstance  that  if  self  be  dealt  with  as  a 
substantive,  such  phrases  as  my  own  self,  his  own  great 
self,   &c.,   can    be   used ;    whereby   the    language    is   a 
gainer. 

"  Vox  self,  pluraliter  selves,  quamvis  etiam  pronomen 
a  quibusdam  censeatur  (quoniam  ut  plurimum  per  La- 
tinum  ipse  redditur),  est  tamen  plane  nomen  substan- 
tivum,  cui  quidem  vix  aliquod  apud  Latinos  substantivnm 
respondet ;  proxime  tamen  accedet  vox  persona  vel 
propria  persona  ut  my  self,  thy  self,  our  selves,  your 
selves,  &c.  (ego  ipse,  tu  ipse,  nos  ipsi,  vos  ipsi,  <fcc.),  ad 
verbum  mea  persona,  tua  persona,  &c.  Fateor  tamen 
himself,  itself,  themselves,  vulgo  dici  pro  his-self,  its-self, 
their  selves  ;  at  (interposito  own)  his  own  self,  (fee.,  ipsius 
propria  persona,  &c." — Wallis.  c.  vii. 

4.  The  fact  that  many  persons  actually  say  hisself 
and  theirselves. 


AND  OTHER   PRONOUNS.  175 

Whit. — As  in  the  phrase  not  a  whit.  This  enters  in 
the  compound  pronouns  aught  and  naught. 

One. — As  in  the  phrase  one  does  so  and  so.  From 
the  French  on.  Observe  that  this  is  from  the  Latin  homo, 
in  Old  French  horn,  om.  In  the  Germanic  tongues  man 
is  used  in  the  same  sense  :  man  sagt  *=  one  says  =  on  dit. 
One,  like  self  and  other,  is  so  far  a  substantive,  that  it  is 
inflected.  Gen.  sing,  one's  own  self:  plural,  my  wife  and 
little  ones  are  well. 

Derived  pronouns. — Any,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  cenig.  In 
Old  High  German  we  have  einic  =  any,  and  einac  = 
single.  In  Anglo-Saxon  anega  means  single.  In  Mid- 
dle High  German  einec  is  always  single.  In  New  High 
German  einig  means,  1.  a  certain  person  (quidam), 
2.  agreeing ;  einzig,  meaning  single.  In  Dutch  enech 
has  both  meanings.  This  indicates  the  word  an,  one,  as 
the  root  of  the  word  in  question. 

Compound  pronouns. —  Which,  as  has  been  already 
stated  more  than  once,  is  most  incorrectly  called  the  neu- 
ter of  who.  Instead  of  being  a  neuter,  it  is  a  compound 
word.  The  adjective  leiks,  like,  is  preserved  in  the  Moeso- 
Gothic  words  galeiks  and  missaleiks.  In  Old  High  Ger- 
man the  form  is  lih,  in  Anglo-Saxon  lie.  Hence  we  have 
Moeso-Gothic  hveleiks  ;  Old  High  German,  huelih  ;  An- 
glo-Saxon, huilic  and  hvilc  ;  Old  Frisian,  hivelik  ;  Danish, 
hvilk-en;  German,  welch ;  Scotch,  whilk;  English,  which. 
The  same  is  the  case  with — 

1.  Such. — Moeso-Gothic,  svaleiks  ;  Old  High  German, 
solih ;  Old   Saxon,  sulic ;  Anglo-Saxon,  svilc ;  German, 
solch ;  English,  such.     Rask's   derivation  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  swilc  from  swa-ylc,  is  exceptionable. 

2.  Thilk. — An  old  English  word,  found  in  the  pro- 
vincial dialects,  as  thick,  thuck,  theck,  and  hastily  derived 
by  Tyrwhitt,  Ritson,  and  Weber,  from  se  ylca,  is  found 


176  OF  KELATIVE,   INTERROGATIVE, 

in  the  following  forms  :    Mosso-Gothic,  \$leiks  ;    Norse, 


3.  Ilk.  —  Found  in  the  Scotch,  and  always  preceded 
by  the  article  ;  the  ilk,  or  that  ilk,  meaning  the  same. 
In  Anglo-Saxon  this  word  is  ycla,  preceded  also  by  the 
article  se  ylca,  se6  ylce,  ]>cet  ylce.  In  English,  as  seen 
above,  the  word  is  replaced  by  same.  In  no  other  Gothic 
dialect  does  it  occur.  According  to  Grimm,  this  is  no 
simple  word,  but  a  compound  one,  of  which  some  such 
wore  as  ei  is  the  first,  and  lie  the  second  element. 

Aught.  —  In  Moeso-Gothic  is  found  the  particle,  aiv, 
ever,  but  only  in  negative  propositions  ;  ni  (not]  preceding 
it.  Its  Old  High  German  form  is  eo,  io  ;  in  Middle  High 
German,  ie  ;  in  New  High  German,  je  ;  in  Old  Saxon, 
io  ;  in  Anglo-Saxon,  a  ;  in  Norse,  ce.  Combined  with 
this  particle  the  word  whit  (thing)  gives  the  following 
forms  :  Old  High  German,  eowiht  ;  Anglo-Saxon,  aviht  ; 
Old  Frisian,  awet  ;  English  aught.  The  word  naught  is 
aught  preceded  by  the  negative  particle. 

Each.  —  The  particle  gi  enters,  like  the  particle  in  the 
composition  of  pronouns.  Old  High  German,  eogaliher, 
every  one  ;  eocalih,  all  ;  Middle  High  German,  iegelich  ; 
New  High  German,  jeglich  ;  Anglo-Saxon,  celc  ;  Eng- 
lish, each  ;  the  I  being  dropped,  as  in  which  and  such. 
jElc,  as  the  original  of  the  English  each  and  the  Scotch 
ilka*  must  by  no  means  be  confounded  with  the  word 
yke,  the  same. 

Every,  in  Old  English,  everich,  everech,  everilk  one, 
is  celc,  preceded  by  the  particle  ever.  (Grimm.  D.  G. 
iii.  54.) 

Either.  —  Old   High   German,    eogahuedar  ;    Middle 
High    German,    iegeweder  ;     Anglo-Saxon,    ceghvcffier, 
;  Old  Frisian,  eider. 

*  Different  from  ilk. 


AND  OTHER  PRONOUNS.  177 

Neither. — The  same  with  the  negative  article  prefixed. 
Neither  :  either  :  :  naught  :  aught. 

§  236.  Other,  whether. — These  words,  although  deriv- 
ed forms,  being  simpler  than  some  that  have  preceded, 
might  fairly  have  been  dealt  with  before.  They  make, 
however,  a  transition  from  the  present  to  the  succeeding 
chapter,  and  so  find  a  place  here. 

A.  First ,  it  may  be  stated  of  them  that  the  idea  which 
they  express  is  not  that  of  one  out  of  many,  but  that  of 
one  out  of  two. 

1.  In   Sanscrit  there   are   two   forms,a)  kataras,  the 
same  word  as  whether,  meaning  which  out  of  two;*)  ka- 
tamas,  which  out  of  many.     So  also  ekateras,  one  out 
of  two ;    ekatamas,  one  out  of  many.     In  Greek    the 
Ionic   form    Korepos   (vrore^o?) ;    in   Latin,   uter,   neuter, 
alter  ;  and  in  Moeso-Gothic,  hvathar,  have  the  same  form 
and  the  same  meaning. 

2.  In  the  Scandinavian  language  the  word  anden,  Da- 
no-Saxon,  annar,  Iceland,  corresponds  to  the  English  word 
second,  and  not  the  German  zweite :   e.  g.,  Karl  den 
Anden,  Charles  the  Second.     Now  anthar  is  the  older 
form  of  other. 

B.  Secondly,  it  may  be  stated  of  them,  that  the  ter- 
mination -er  is  the  same  termination  that  we  find  in  the 
comparative  degree. 

1.  The  idea  expressed  by  the  comparative  degree  is 
the  comparison,  not  of  many  but  of  two  things  ;  this  is 
better  than  that. 

2.  In  all  the   Indo-European  languages  where  there 
are  pronouns  in  -ter,  there  is  also  a  comparative  degree  in 
-ter.     See  next  chapter. 

3.  As  the  Sanscrit  form  kataras  corresponds  with  the 
comparative  degree,  where  there  is  the  comparison  of  two 
things  with  each  other  ;  so  the  word  katamas  is  a  super- 

9* 


178     OF  RELATIVE  AND  OTHER  PRONOUNS. 

lative  form  ;  and  in  the  superlative  degree  lies  the  com- 
parison of  many  things  with  each  other. 

Hence  other  and  whether  (to  which  may  be  added 
either  and  neither]  are  pronouns  with  the  comparative 
form. 

Other  has  the  additional  peculiarity  of  possessing  the 
plural  form  others.  Hence,  like  self,  it  is,  in  the  strictest 
sense,  a  substantival  pronoun. 


CERTAIN  FORMS  IN  -ER.  179 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON    CERTAIN   FORMS    IN    -ER. 

§  237.  PREPARATORY  to  the  consideration  of  the  de- 
grees of  comparison,  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  remarks 
upon  a  certain  class  of  words,  which,  with  considerable 
differences  of  signification,  all  agree  in  one  fact,  viz.,  all 
terminate  in  -er,  or  t-er. 

1.  Certain  pronouns,  as  ei-th-er,  n-ei-th-er,  whe-th-en, 
or  o-th-er. 

2.  Certain  prepositions  and  adverbs,  as  ov-er,  und-er, 
af-t-er. 

3.  Certain  adjectives,  with  the  form  of  the  compara- 
tive, but  the  power  of  the  positive  degree ;   as  upp-er, 
und-er,  inn-er,  out-er,  hind-er. 

4.  All  adjectives  of  the  comparative  degree ;  as  wis- 
er, strong-er,  bett-er,  &c. 

Now  what  is  the  idea  common  to  all  these  words,  ex- 
pressed by  the  sign  -er,  and  connecting  the  four  divisions 
into  one  class  ?  It  is  not  the  mere  idea  of  comparison ; 
although  it  is  the  comparative  degree,  to  the  expression 
of  which  the  affix  in  question  is  more  particularly  applied. 
Bopp,  who  has  best  generalised  the  view  of  these  forms, 
considers  the  fundamental  idea  to  be  that  of  duality.  In 
the  comparative  degree  we  have  a  relation  between  one 
object  and  some  other  object  like  it,  or  a  relation  between 
two  single  elements  of  comparison :  A  is  wiser  than  B. 
In  the  suDerlative  degree  we  have  a  relation  between  one 


180  CERTAIN  FORMS  IN  -ER. 

object  and  all  others  like  it,  or  a  relation  between  one 
single  and  one  complex  element  of  comparison :  A  is 
wiser  than  B,  C,  D,  &c. 

"  As  in  comparatives  a  relation  between  two,  and  in 
superlatives  a  relation  between  many,  lies  at  the  bottom, 
it  is  natural  that  their  suffixes  should  be  transferred  to 
other  words,  whose  chief  notion  is  individualised  through 
that  of  duality  or  plurality." — "  Vergleichende  Gram- 
matik,"  §  292,  Eastwick's  and  Wilson's  Translation. 

The  most  important  proofs  of  the  view  adduced  by 
Bopp  are, — 

1.  The  Sanskrit  form  kataras  =  which  of  two  persons  ? 
is  a  comparative  form  ;  whilst  katamas  =  which  of  more 
than  two  persons  ?   a  superlative  form.     Similarly,  ekata- 
ras  —  one  of  two  persons  ;  ekatamas  —  one  of  more  than 
two  persons. 

2.  The  Greek  forms,  e/cdrepos  =  each  (or  either)  out  of 
two  persons  ;  whilst  e/caoTo?  =  each  or  any  out  of  more 
than  two  persons. 

§  238.  The  more  important  of  the  specific  modifications 
of  the  general  idea  involved  in  the  comparison  of  two  ob- 
jects are, — 

1.  Contrariety  :  as  in  inner,  outer,  under,  upper,  over. 
In  Latin  the  words  for  right  and  left  end  in  -er, — dexter, 
sinister. 

2.  Choice  in  the  way  of  an  alternative  ;  as  either,  nei- 
ther, whether,  other. 

§  230.  Either,  neither,  other,  whether.^Lt  has  just 
been  stated  that  the  general  fundamental  idea  common 
to  all  these  forms  is  that  of  choice  between  one  of  two 
objects  in  the  way  of  an  alternative.  Thus  far  the  ter- 
mination -er  in  either,  &c.,  is  the  termination  -er  in  the 
true  comparatives,  brav-er,  wis-er,  &c.  Either  and 
neither  are  common  pronouns.  Other,  like  one,  is  a 


CERTAIN  FORMS  IN  -ER.  181 

pronoun  capable  of  taking  the  plural  form  of  a  sub- 
stantive (others),  and  also  that  of  the  genitive  case  (the 
other's  money,  the  other's  bread).  Whether  is  a  pronoun 
in  the  almost  obsolete  form  whether  ( =  which)  of  the  two 
do  you  prefer,  and  a  conjunction  in  sentences  like  whether 
will  you  do  this  or  not  ?  The  use  of  the  form  others  is 
recent.  "  They  are  taken  out  of  the  way  as  all  other" 
— Job.  "  And  leave  their  riches  for  other" — Psalms. 


182         THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE. 


CHAPTER   X. 

THE    COMPARATIVE    DEGREE. 

§  240.  THERE  are  four  leading  facts  here, — 

1.  The  older  form  in  -s.     In  English  we  say  old-er, 
bett-er,  sweet-er;  in  Old  High  German  they  similarly 
said,  alt-iro,  bets-iro,  suats-tro  ;  but  in  Moeso-Gothic  the 
forms  were  ald-zza,  bat-iza.  sut-izo. 

2.  Adverbs  are  susceptible  of  comparison  ;  e.g. — Come 
as  soon  as  you  can,  but  do  not  come  sooner  than  is  con- 
venient. 

3.  The  Anglo-Saxon   comparison  of  the   adverbs   is 
different  from  that  of  the  adjectives ;    there   being  one 
form  in  -re  and  -este,  another  in  -or  and  -ost  respectively. 
Now  the  first  of  these  was  the  form  taken  by  adjectives  : 
as  se  scearp-re  sweord=  the  sharper  sword,  and  se  scearp- 
este  sword  =  the  sharpest  sword.      The  second,  on   the 
other  hand,  was  the  form  taken  by  adverbs  :  as,  se  sweord 
scyr¥>  scearp-or=  the  sword  cuts  sharper,  and  se  sweord 
scyr?>  scearp-ost  =  the  sword  cuts  sharpest. 

4.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  following  words  exhibit  a 
change  of  vowel. 


Positive. 
Lang, 
Strang, 
Geong, 
Sceort, 
Heah, 
Eald, 

Comparative. 
Lengre, 
Strengre, 
Gyngre, 
Scyrtre, 
Hyrre, 
Yldre, 

Superlative. 
Lengest 
Strengest 
Gyngest 
Scyrtest 
Hyhst 
Yldeei 

Long. 
Strong. 
Young. 
Short. 
High. 
Old. 

THE  COMPAKATIVE  DEGREE.       .   183 

§  241.  Now  the  fourth  of  these  facts  explains  the 
present  forms  elder  and  eldest,  the  comparatives  and 
superlative  of  old,  besides  which  there  are  the  regular 
forms  old-er  and  old-est ;  between  which  there  is,  how- 
ever, a  difference  in  meaning — elder  being  used  as  a  sub- 
stantive, and  having  a  plural  form,  elders. 

§  242.  The  abverbial  forms  in  -or  and  -ost,  as  com- 
pared with  the  adjectival  in  -re,  and  -este  explain  the  form 
rather.  This  rhymes  tv  father  ;  the  a  being  full.  Never- 
theless, the  positive  form  is  rather  meaning  quick,  easy 
=  the  classical  root  pa$-  in  pdSios.  What  we  do  quickly 
and  willingly  we  do  preferably.  Now  if  the  word  rather 
were  an  adjective,  the  vowel  of  the  comparative  would 
be  sounded  as  the  a  in  fate,  as  it  is,  however,  it  is 
abverbial,  and  as  such  is  properly  sounded  as  the  a  in 
father. 

The  difference  between  the  action  of  the  small  vowel 
in  -re,  and  of  the  full  in  -or  effects  this  difference,  since 
o  being  a  full  vowel,  it  has  the  effect  of  making  the  a  full 
also. 

§  243.  The  old  form  in  -s  will  be  considered,  after 
notice  has  been  taken  of  what  may  be  called — 

§  244.  Excess  of  expression. — Of  this  two  samples 
have  already  been  given :  1.  in  words  like  songstress  ;  2. 
in  words  like  children.  This  may  be  called  excess  of 
expression  ;  the  feminine  gender,  in  words  like  songstress, 
and  the  plural  number,  in  words  like  children,  being  ex- 
pressed  twice  over.  In  the  vulgarism  betterer  for  better, 
and  in  the  antiquated  forms  worser  for  worse,  and  lesser 
for  less,  we  have,  in  the  case  of  the  comparatives,  as  else- 
where, an  excess  of  expression.  In  the  old  High  Ger- 
man we  have  the  forms  betseroro,  meroro,  ererera  =  better, 
more,  ere. 

§  245.  Better. — Although  in  the  superlative  form  best 


184          THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE. 

there  is  a  slight  variation  from  the  strict  form  of  that 
degree,  the  word  better  is  perfectly  regular.  So  far,  then, 
from  truth  are  the  current  statements  that  the  comparison 
of  the  words  good,  better,  and  best  is  irregular.  The  in- 
flection is  not  irregular,  but  defective.  As  the  statement 
that  applies  to  good,  better,  and  best  applies  to  many 
words  besides,  it  will  be  well  in  this  place,  once  for  all,  to 
exhibit  it  in  full. 

§  246.  Difference  between  a  sequence  in  logic  and  a 
sequence  in  etymology. — The  ideas  or  notions  of  thou,  thy, 
thee,  are  ideas  between  which  there  is  a  metaphysical  or 
logical  connexion.  The  train  of  such  ideas  may  be  said 
to  form  a  sequence,  and  such  a  sequence  may  be  called  a 
logical  one. 

The  words  thou,  thy,  thee,  are  words  between  which 
there  is  a  formal  or  an  etymological  connexion.  A  train 
of  such  words  may  be  called  a  sequence,  and  such  a 
sequence  may  be  called  an  etymological  one. 

In  the  case  of  thou,  thy,  thee,  the  etymological  sequence 
tallies  with  the  logical  one. 

The  ideas  of  /,  my,  and  me  are  also  in  a  logical  se- 
quence :  but  the  forms  /,  my,  and  me  are  not  altogether 
in  an  etymological  one. 

In  the  case  of  I,  my,  me,  the  etymological  sequence 
does  not  tally  (or  tallies  imperfectly)  with  the  logical 
one. 

This  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  between  the 
words  /  and  me  there  is  no  connexion  in  etymology. 

It  is  also  only  another  way  of  saying,  that,  in  the 
oblique  cases-,  /,  and,  in  the  nominative  case,  me,  are 
defective. 

Now  the  same  is  the  case  with  good,  better,  badt 
worse,  <fec.  Good  and  bad  are  defective  in  the  compa- 
rative and  superlative  degrees ;  better  and  worse  are 


THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE.         185 

defective  in  the  positive  ;  whilst  between  good  and  better, 
bad  and  worse,  there  is  a  sequence  in  logic,  but  no 
sequence  in  etymology. 

§  247.  To  return,  however,  to  the  word  better ;  no 
absolute  positive  degree  is  found  in  any  of  the  allied 
languages,  and  in  none  of  the  allied  languages  is  there 
found  any  comparative  form  of  good.  Its  root  occurs 
in  the  following  adverbial  forms :  Moeso-Gothic,  bats ; 
Old  High  German,  pats  ;  Old  Saxon  and  Anglo-Saxon, 
bet;  Middle  High  German,  baz ;  Middle  Dutch,  bat, 
bet. 

§  248.   Worse. — This  word  is  one  of  two  things. 

1.  It  is  a  positive  form  with  a  comparative  sense ;  in 
which  case  s  is  part  of  the  root. 

2.  It  is  a  comparative  degree  from  the  positive  form 
wor-  (vair,-  wir-,  vyr-\  in  which  case  5  is  the  s  of  the 
Old    Moeso-Gothic    inflexion    preserved    in    this    single 
word. 

§  249.  More. — In  Anglo-Saxon  this  is  ma ;  in  the 
English  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  it  is  moe  ;  and  in  cer- 
tain provincial  dialects  it  is  mo,  at  the  present  time. 

Notwithstanding  this,  i.  e.,  the  form  being  positive,  the 
power  of  the  word  has  always  been  comparative,  and 
meant  more  rather  than  much,  or  many. 

§  250.  Less. — In  Anglo-Saxon  Icessa  and  Ices.  Here 
there  is  no  unequivocal  sign  of  the  comparative  degree ; 
what,  then,  is  the  nature  of  the  word?  Is  it  a  positive 
form  with  a  comparative  power  like  moe?  or  is  it  an 
old  comparative  in  -s?  This  is  undecided.  What  does  it 
come  from?  Grimm  derives  it  from  the  Moeso-Gothic 
root  lasiv  =  weak.  His  doctrine  is  doubtful.  I  cannot 
but  believe  that  it  comes  from  the  same  root  as  litt-le  : 
where  the  old  Frisian  form  litich,  shows  that  the  -I  is  no 
essential  part  of  the  word,  and  the  Danish  form  lille  gets 


186         THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE. 

rid  of  the  t.     Still   the  word   is  difficult;    indeed  it  is 
unexplained. 

§  251.  Near,  nearer. — Anglo-Saxon,  neah  ;  compara- 
tive, nearre,  near,  nyr ;  superlative,  nyhst,  nehst.  Ob- 
serve, in  the  Anglo-Saxon  positive  and  superlative,  the 
absence  of  the  r.  This  shows  that  the  English  positive 
near  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  comparative  nearre,  and  that  in 
the  secondary  comparative  nearer,  we  have  an  excess  of 
expression.  It  may  be,  however,  that  the  r  in  near  is  a 
mere  point  of  orthography,  and  that  it  is  not  pronounced; 
since,  in  the  English  language  the  words  father  and 
farther  are,  for  the  most  part,  pronounced  alike. 

§  252.  Farther. — Anglo-Saxon  feor,  fyrre,  fyrrest. 
The  th  seems  euphonic,  inserted  by  the  same  process  that 
gives  the  S  in  avSpbs,  from  dvrjp  --=  man. 

Further. — Confounded  with  farther,  although  in  reality 
from  a  different  word,  fore.  Old  High  German,  furdir  ; 
New  High  German,  der  vordere  ;  Anglo-Saxon,  fyr^re. 

§  253.  Former. — A  comparative  formed  from  the  su- 
perlative ;  forma  being  such.  Consequently,  an  instance 
of  excess  of  expression,  combined  with  irregularity. 

§  254.  In  Moeso-Gothic  spedists  means  last,  and 
spediza  =  later.  Of  the  word  spedists  two  views  may  be 
taken.  According  to  one  it  is  the  positive  degree  with 
the  addition  of  st ;  according  to  the  other,  it  is  the  com- 
parative degree  with  the  addition  only  of  t.  Now,  Grimm 
and  others  lay  down  as  a  rule,  that  the  superlative  is 
formed,  not  directly  from  the  positive,  but  indirectly 
through  the  comparative. 

With  the  exception  of  worse  and  less,  all  the  English 
comparatives  end  in  -r :  yet  no  superlative  ends  in  -rt,  the 
form  being,  not  wise,  wiser,  wisert,  but  wise,  wiser,  wisest. 
This  fact,  without  invalidating  the  notion  just  laid  down, 
gives  additional  importance  to  the  comparative  forms  in  s ; 


THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE.         187 

since  it  is  from  these,  before  they  have  changed  to  r,  that 
we  must  suppose  the  superlatives  to  have  been  derived. 
The  theory  being  admitted,  we  can,  by  approximation, 
determine  the  comparative  antiquity  of  the  superlative 
degree.  It  was  introduced  after  the  establishment  of  the 
comparative,  and  before  the  change  of  -s  into  -r. 


188         THE  SUPERLATIVE  DEGKEE. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE    SUPERLATIVE    DEGREE. 

§  255.  THE  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  first  was  for-rrira. 

The  root  was  for  =  the  Latin  prce,  the  Greek  Trpo, 
and  being  the  same  combination  which  occurs  in  fore, 
fore-m-ost,  &c. 

The  m  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  sign  of  the  superlative 
degree. 

It  is  the  m  in  the  Latin  words  pri-m-us,  inti-m-us, 
exti-m-us,  ulti-m-us,  &c. 

It  occurs  even  in  the  Gothic  tongues  ;  in  other  words, 
besides  for-m-a. 

In  short,  m  is  an  old  sign  of  the  superlative  degree ; 
probably  older  than  the  usual  form,  -st,  discussed  in 
§  254.  This  has  some  important  applications. 

§  256.  Former. — This  is  a  remarkable  word :  it  is  a 
comparative  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  superlative, 
and  its  analysis  is  for-m-er,  with  excess  of  inflexion. 

§  257.  Nea-r-est. — Here  the  r  is  no  part  of  the  original 
root,  as  may  be  seen  in  §  251.  It  has  grown  out  of  -ah 
pronounced  as  the  a  in  father.  The  true  forms  are 
positive,  neah  ;  comparative,  neah-er  ;  superlative,  neah- 
est.  Such,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  really  the  case. 

§  258.  Next. — The  superlative  of  nigh,  contracted  from 
nigh-est.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forms  were  neah,  nyh-st, 
neh-st,  nyh-ste.  In  Anglo-Saxon  the  letter  h  was  pro- 
nounced strongly,  and  sounded  like  g  or  k.  This  fact  is 


THE  SUPERLATIVE  DEGREE.  189 

still  shown  in  the  spelling ;  as  ragh.  In  the  wor"d  next 
this  sound  is  preserved,  slightly  changed  into  that  of  k ; 
next  =  nek-st. 

§  250.  Upmost,  &c. — The  common  statement  con- 
cerning words  like  upmost  is,  that  they  are  compound 
words,  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  word  most :  this, 
however,  is  more  than  doubtful. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  language  presents  us  with  the  fol- 
lowing forms : — 

Anglo-Saxon.  English. 

Innema  (inn-ema),  Inmost  (in-m-ost). 

Utema  (ut-ma),  Outmost  (out-m-ost). 

SiSema  (sifc-euia^  Latest. 

Laetema  (Iset-ema),  Latest 

Nii5  em  a  (niS-ema),  Nethermost  (neth-er-m-ost). 

Forma  (for-ma),  Foremost  (fore-m-ost). 

./Eftema  (aft-ema),  Aftermost  (aft-er-m-ost). 

Ufema  (uf-ema),  Upmost  (up-m-ost). 

Hindema  (hind-ema),  Hindmost  (hind-m-ost). 

Midema  (mid-ema),  Midmost  (mid-m-ost). 

Now  the  words  in  question  show  at  once,  that,  as 
far  as  they  are  concerned,  the  m  that  appears  in  the 
last  syllable  of  each  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  word 
most. 

From  the  words  in  question  there  was  formed,  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  a  regular  superlative  form  in  the  usual 
manner ;  viz.,  by  the  addition  of  -st ;  as  cefte-m-estj 
fyr-m-est,  Icete-m-est,  sift-m-est,  yfe-m-est,  ute-m-est,  inne- 
m-est. 

Hence,  in  the  present  English,  the  different  parts  of 
the  syllable  most  (in  words  like  upmost)  come  from  dif- 
ferent quarters.  The  m  is  the  m  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
words  innema,  &c. ;  whilst  the  -st  is  the  common  sign 
of  the  superlative.  Hence,  in  separating  such  words  as 
midmost  into  its  component  parts,  we  should  write 


190         THE  SUPERLATIVE  DEGREE. 

Mid-m-oet  not  mid-most 

Ut-m-ost  —  ut-most 

Up-m-ost  up-most 

Fore-m-ost  —  fore-most 

In-m-ost  —  in-most 

Hind-m-ost  —  hind-most 

Out-m-ost  out-most 

§  260.  In  certain  words,  however,  the  syllable  m<-ost 
is  added  to  a  word  already  ending  in  -er  ;  that  is,  already 
marked  with  the  sign  of  the  comparative  degree. 


N"eth-er-m-ost 

Utter-m-ost 

Upp-er-m-ost 


Hind-er-m-ost 

Out-er-m-ost 

Inn-er-m-ost 


THE   CARDINAL   NUMBERS.  191 


CHAPTER   XII. 

THE    CARDINAL    NUMBERS. 

§  261.  GENERALLY  speaking,  the  greater  part  of  the 
cardinal  numbers  are  undeclined.  As  far  as  number 
goes,  this  is  necessary. 

One  is  naturally  and  exclusively  singular. 

Two  is  naturally  dual. 

The  rest  are  naturally  and  exclusively  plural. 

As  to  the  inflection  of  gender  and  case,  there  is  no 
reason  why  all  the  numerals  should  not  be  as  fully 
inflected  as  the  Latin  unus,  una,  unum,  unius.  It  is  a 
mere  habit  of  our  language  that  they  are  not  so  in 
English. 


192  THE   ORDINAL  NUMBERS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE    ORDINAL    NUMBERS. 

§  262.  BY  referring  to  §  259,  we  see  that  -m  was  an 
early  sign  of  the  superlative  degree.  This  bears  upon  the 
numerals  seven,  nine,  and  ten. 

These  are  cardinal  numbers.  Nevertheless,  the 
present  chapter  is  the  proper  place  for  noticing  them. 

There  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  final  -n  is 
no  part  of  the  original  root.  Thus, — 

a.  JSev-en  =  ihe  Latin  sept-em,  where  the  -m  is  equi- 
valent  to   the   -n.      But   in   the    Greek   eir-ra,    and   the 
Scandinavian  syv,  and  sju,  neither  -n  nor  -m  occur. 

b.  Ni-ne. — This     same    applies    here.      The    Latin 
form   is   nov-em ;   but  the  Greek   and  Norse   are  ewea 
and  niu. 

c.  Ten. — The  older  form  is  ti-h-un,  in  Latin  de-c-em. 
The  English  -n  is  the  Latin  -m.     Nevertheless,  in  the 
Greek  and  Norse  the  forms  are  Sexa  and  tuo. 

§  263.  What  explains  this  ?  The  following  hypothesis. 
Some  of  the  best  German  authorities  believe,  that  the  -m, 
expressive  of  the  superlative  degree,  was  also  used  to 
denote  the  ordinal  character  (ordinality)  of  the  numerals  ; 
so  that  the  -m-  in  deci-m-us,  was  the  -m-  in  ulti-m-us 
and  exti-m-us.  This  is  the  first  step  in  the  explanation. 

§  264.  The  next  is,  to  suppose  that  certain  car- 
dinal numerals  have  taken  and  retained  the  ordinal 
form  ;  these  being  the — 


THE  ORDINAL  NUMBERS.  193 

Latin.  English.  Greek.  Norse. 

Sept-em,  sev-en,  as  opposed  to  the  IJTT&  sjau. 

2fov-em,  ni-ne  tvvfa,  niu. 

Dec-em  te-n  8e/ca  tin. 

I  give  no  opinion  as  to  the  accuracy  or  erroneousness 
of  this  view. 

§  265.  Thir-teen,  &c.,  is  three  with  ten  added,  or 
3  +  10. 

§  266.  Thir-ty,  <fcc.,  is  three  tens  (three  decades),  or 
3  x  10.  In  Moeso-Gothic  we  find  the  -ty  in  the  ftdler 
form  tig  =  Setc-as  in  Greek. 


194  THE  ARTICLES. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE    ARTICLES. 

§  267.  IN  the  generality  of  grammars  the  definite 
article  the,  and  the  indefinite  article  an,  are  the  very 
first  parts  of  speech  that  are  considered.  This  is  excep- 
tionable. So  far  are  they  from  being  essential  to  lan- 
guage, that,  in  many  dialects,  they  are  wholly  wanting. 
In  Greek  there  is  no  indefinite,  in  Latin  there  is  neither 
an  indefinite  nor  a  definite  article.  In  the  former  lan- 
guage they  say  dvijp  rt?  =  a  certain  man :  in  the  latter 
the  words  filius  patris  mean  equally  the  son  of  the  fa- 
ther, a  son  of  a  father,  a  son  of  the  father,  or  the  son 
of  a  father.  In  Moeso-Gothic  and  in  Old  Norse,  there  is 
an  equal  absence  of  the  indefinite  article ;  or,  at  any  rate, 
if  there  be  one  at  all,  it  is  a  different  word  from  what  oc- 
curs in  English.  In  these  the  Greek  rt9  is  expressed  by 
the  Gothic  root  sum. 

Now,  since  it  is  very  evident  that,  as  far  as  the  sense 
is  concerned,  the  words  some  man,  a  certain  man,  and  a 
man,  are  much  the  same,  an  exception  may  be  taken  to 
the  statement  that  in  Greek  and  Moeso-Gothic  there  is  no 
indefinite  article.  It  may,  in  the  present  state  of  the 
argument,  oe  fairly  said  that  the  words  sum  and  -n?  are 
pronouns  with  a  certain  sense,  and  that  a  and  an  are  no 
more ;  consequently,  that  in  Greek  the  indefinite  article  is 
rt?,  in  Moeso-Gothic  sum,  and  in  English  a  or  an. 


THE  AKTICLES.  195 

A  distinction,  however,  may  be  made.  In  the  expres- 
sion avrjp  rt?  (ancer  tis)  =  a  certain  man,  or  a  man,  and 
in  'the  expression  sum  mann,  the  words  sum  and  rt?  pre- 
serve their  natural  and  original  meaning;  whilst  in  a 
man  and  an  ox  the  words  a  and  an  are  used  in  a  second- 
ary sense.  These  words,  as  is  currently  known,  are  one 
and  the  same,  the  n,  in  the  form  a,  being  ejected  through 
a  euphonic  process.  They  are,  moreover,  the  same  words 
with  the  numeral  one;  Anglo-Saxon,  an;  Scotch,  ane. 
Now,  between  the  words  a  man  and  one  man,  there  is  a 
difference  in  meaning ;  the  first  expression  being  the  most 
indefinite.  Hence  comes  the  difference  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  Moeso-Grothic  expressions.  In  the  one  the  wTord 
sum  has  a  natural,  in  the  other,  the  word  an  has  a  second- 
ary power. 

The  same  reasoning  applies  to  the  word  the.  Com- 
pared with  a  man,  the  words  the  man  are  very  definite. 
Compared,  however,  with  the  words  that  man,  they  are 
the  contrary.  Now,  just  as  an  and  a  have  arisen  out  of 
the  numeral  one,  so  has  the  arisen  out  of  the  demonstra- 
tive pronoun  }>cet,  or  at  least  from  some  common  root.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  in  Anglo-Saxon  there  was  a  form 
]>e,  undeclined,  and  common  to  «all  the  cases  of  all  the 
numbers. 

In  no  language  in  its  oldest  stage  is  there  ever  a  word 
giving,  in  its  primary  sense,  the  ideas  of  a  and  the.  As 
tongues  become  modern,  some  noun  with  a  similar  sense  is 
used  to  express  them.  In  the  course  of  time  a  change  of 
form  takes  place,  corresponding  to  the  change  of  meaning ; 
e.  §".,  one  becomes  an,  and  afterwards  a.  Then  it  is  that 
articles  become  looked  upon  as  separate  parts  of  speech, 
and  are  dealt  with  accordingly.  No  invalidation  of  this 
statement  is  drawn  from  the  Greek  language.  Although 
the  first  page  of  the  etymology  gives  us  o,  77,  TO  (ho,  hcB, 


196  THE  ARTICLES. 

to),  as  the  definite  articles,  the  corresponding  page  in  the 
syntax  informs  us,  that,  in  the  oldest  stage  of  the  language, 
6  (ho)  =  the.  had  the  power  of  ouro?  (howtos)  =  this. 

The  origin  of  the  articles  seems  uniform.  In  German 
em,  in  Danish  en,  stand  to  one  in  the  same  relation  that 
an  does.  The  French  un,  Italian  and  Spanish  uno,  are 
similarly  related  to  unus=one. 

And  as,  in  English,  the,  in  German  der,  in  Danish 
den,  come  from  the  demonstrative  pronouns,  so,  in  the 
classical  languages,  are  the  French  le,  the  Italian  il  and 
lo,  and  the  Spanish  el,  derived  from  the  Latin  demonstra- 
tive ille. 

In  his  "  Outlines  of  Logic,"  the  present  writer  has 
given  reasons  for  considering  the  word  no  (as  in  no  man) 
an  article. 

That  the,  in  expressions  like  all  the  more,  all  the  bet- 
ter, &c.,  is  no  article,  has  already  been  shown. 


DIMINUTIVES  AND  AUGMENTATIVES.  197 


CHAPTER    XV. 

DIMINUTIVES,    AUGMENTATIVES,    AND    PATRONYMICS. 

§  268.  COMPARED  with  the  words  lamb,  man,  and 
hill,  the  works  lambkin,  mannikin,  and  hillock  convey 
the  idea  of  comparative  smallness  or  diminution.  Now, 
as  the  word  hillock  =  a  little  hill  differs  in  form  from  hill, 
we  have  in  English  a  series  of  diminutive  forms,  or  di- 
minutives. 

The  English  diminutives  may  be  arranged  according 
to  a  variety  of  principles.  Amongst  others  : 

1.  According  to  their  form. — The  word  hillock  is  de- 
rived from  hill,  by  the  addition  of  a  syllable.     The  word 
tip  is  derived  from  top,  by  the  change  of  a  vowel. 

2.  According  to  their  meaning. — In  the  word  hillock 
there  is  the  simple  expression  .of  comparative  smallness 
in  size.     In  the  word  doggie  for  dog,  lassie  for  lass,  the 
addition  of  the  -ie  makes  the  word  not  so  much  a  dimi- 
nutive  as   a   term   of  tenderness   or   endearment.     The 
idea   of   smallness,  accompanied,  perhaps,  with   that   of 
neatness,  generally  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  approba- 
tion ;  hence,  the  word  clean  in  English,  means,  in  Ger- 
man, little  =  kleine.     The  feeling  of  protection  which  is 
extended  to  small  objects  engenders  the  notion  of  endear- 
ment. 

§  269.  The  Greek  word  /jueicoa-is  (meidsis)  means  dimi- 
nution :  the  Greek  word  vTroKopio-pa  (hypokorisma)  means 


198  DIMINUTIVES,    AUGMEXTATIVES. 

an  endearing  expression.  Hence  we  get  names  for  the 
two  kinds  of  diminutives ;  viz.,  the  term  meiotic  for  the 
true  diminutives,  and  the  term  hypocoristic  for  the  di- 
minutives of  endearment. 

3.  According  to  their  historical  origin.     The  syllable 
-ock,  as  in  hillock,  is  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Gothic  origin. 
The  -et,  as  in  lancet,  is  of  French  and  classical  origin. 

4.  According  as  they  affect  proper  names,  or  com- 
mon names. — Hawkin,  Perkin,  Wilkin,  &c.     In  these 
words  we  have  the  diminutives  of  Hal,  Peter,  Will,  &c. 

§  270.  The  diminutive  forms  of  Gothic  origin  are  the 
first  to  be  considered. 

1.  Those  formed  by  a  change  of  vowel. —  Tip,  from 
top.     The  relation   of  the  feminine  to  the  masculine  is 
allied  to  the  ideas  conveyed  by  many  diminutives.    Hence 
in  the  word  kit,  from  cat,  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  be 
meant  a  female  cat  or  a  little  cat.     Kid  is  a   diminutive 
form  of  goat. 

2.  Those  formed  by  the  addition  of  a  letter  or  letters. 
— Of  the  diminutive  characteristics  thus  formed  the  com- 
monest, beginning  from  the  simpler  forms,  are 

Ie.— Almost  peculiar  to  the  Lowland  Scotch  ;  as  dad- 
die,  lassie,  minnie,  wifie,  mousie,  doggie,  boatie,  &c. 

Ock.— Bullock,  hillock. 

Kin. — Lambkin,  mannikin,  ladikin,  &c.  As  is  seen 
above,  common  in  proper  names. 

En. — Chicken,  kitten,  from  cock,  cat.  The  notion  of 
diminution,  if  indeed  that  be  the  notion  originally  con- 
veyed, lies  not  in  the  -en,  but  in  the  vowel.  In  the  word 
chicken,  from  cock,  observe  the  effect  of  the  small  vowel 
on  the  c. 

The  consideration  of  words  like  duckling,  and  gosling, 
is  purposely  deferred. 

The  chief  diminutive  of  classical  origin  is — 


AND   PATKONYMICS.  199 

Et,  as  in  trumpet,  lancet,  pocket ;  the  word  pock,  as 
in  meal-pock  =  a  meal-bag,  being  found  in  the  Scottish. 
From  the  French  -ette,  as  in  caissette,  poulette. 

The  forms  -rel,  as  in  cockerel,  pickerel,  and  -let,  as  in 
streamlet,  require  a  separate  consideration.  The  first  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  Italian  forms  acquerella  and  coser- 
ella — themselves,  perhaps,  of  Gothic,  rather  than  of  clas- 
sical origin. 

In  the  Old  High-German  there  are  a  multitude  of  di- 
minutive forms  in  -el ;  as  ouga  =  an  eye,  ougili  =  a  little 
eye  ;  lied  =  a  song,  liedel  =  a  little  song.  This  indicates 
the  nature  of  words  like  cockerel. 

Even  in  English  the  diminutive  power  of  -el  can  be 
traced  in  the  following  words  : — 

Soare  =  a  deer  in  its  third  year.  Sor-rel — a  deer  in  its 
second  year. — See  "  Love's  Labour  Lost,"  with  the  note. 

Tiercel  =  a  small  sort  of  hawk,  one-third  less  (tierce) 
than  the  common  kind. 

Kantle  =  small  corner,  from  cant  =  a  corner. — "  Hen- 
ry IV." 

Hurdle;  in  Dutch  horde;  German,  hurde.  Hord- 
ing, without  the  -I,  is  used  in  an  allied  sense  by  builders 
in  English. 

In  the  words  in  point  we  must  assume  an  earlier  form, 
cocker  and  piker,  to  which  the  diminutive  form  -el  is 
affixed.  If  this  be  true,  we  have,  in  English,  repre- 
sentatives of  the  diminutive  form  -el  so  common  in  the 
High  Germanic  dialects.  Wolfer  =  a  wolf,  hunker  =  a 
haunch,  flitcher  =  a  flitch,  teamer  =  a  team,  fresher  =  a 
frog, — these  are  north  country  forms  of  the  present 
English. 

The  termination  -let,  as  in  streamlet,  seems  to  be 
double,  and  to  consist  of  the  Gothic  diminutive  -/,  and  the 
French  diminutive  -t. 


200  DIMINUTIVES,   AUGMENTATIVES, 

§  271.  Augment latives. — Compared  with  capello  =  a 
hat,  the  Italian  word  capellone  =  a  great  hat,  is  an  aug- 
mentative. The  augmentative  forms,  pre-eminently  com- 
mon in  the  Italian  language,  often  carry  with  them  a  de- 
preciating sense. 

The  termination  -rd  (in  Old  High  German,  -hart),  as 
in  drunkard,  braggart,  laggard,  stinkard,  carries  with 
it  this  idea  of  depreciation.  In  buzzard,  and  reynard, 
the  name  of  the  fox,  it  is  simply  augmentative.  In  wiz- 
ard, from  witch,  it  has  the  power  of  a  masculine  form. 

The  termination  -rd,  taken  from  the  Gothic,  appears 
in  the  modern  languages  of  classical  origin  :  French,  vie- 
illard;  Spanish,  codardo.  From  these  we  get,  at  second- 
hand, the  word  coward. 

The  word  sweetheart  is  a  derived  word  of  this  sort, 
rather  than  a  compound  word ;  since  in  Old  High  Ger- 
man and  Middle  High  German,  we  have  the  correspond- 
ing form  liebhart.  Now  the  form  for  heart  is  in  German 
not  hart,  but  herz. 

Words  like  braggadocio,  trombone,  balloon,  being 
words  of  foreign  origin,  prove  nothing  as  to  the  further 
existence  of  augmentative  forms  in  English. 

§  272. — Patronymics. — In  the  Greek  language  the 
notion  of  lineal  descent,  in  other  words,  the  relation  of  the 
son  to  the  father,  is  expressed  by  a  particular  termination ; 
as  IT^Xev?  (Peleus),  Tlrj^eifys  (Peleidces),  the  son  of  Pe- 
leus.  It  is  very  evident  that  this  mode  of  expression  is 
very  different  from  either  the  English  form  Johnson  =  the 
son  of  John,  or  the  Gaelic  MacDonald  =  the  son  of  Do- 
nald. In  these  last-named  words,  the  words  son  and  Mac 
mean  the  same  thing ;  so  that  Johnson  and  MacDonald 
are  not  derived  but  compound  words.  This  Greek  way 
of  expressing  descent  is  peculiar,  and  the  words  wherein 
it  occurs  are  classed  together  by  the  peculiar  name 


AND   PATRONYMICS.  201 

patronymic  ;  from  patcer  =  a  father,  and  onoma  =  a 
name. 

Is  there  anything  in  English  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  patronymics  ? 

Not  in  the  present  English  ?  There  was,  however,  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon. 

In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  terminations  -ing  is  as  truly 
patronymic  as  -$779  in  Greek.  In  the  Bible-translation 
the  son  of  Elisha  is  called  Elising.  In  the  Anglo-Sax- 
on Chronicle  occur  such  genealogies  as  the  following : — 
Ida  wees  Eopping,  Eoppa  Esing,  Esa  Inging,  Inga 
Angenviting,  Angenvit  Alocing,  Aloe  Beonocing,  Beo- 
noc  Branding,  Brand  Bceldceging,  Bceldag  VGdening, 
Vdden  Frfoowulfing,  Frfoowulf  Finning,  Finn  God- 
wulfing,  Godwulf  Geating  =Ida  was  the  son  of  Eoppa, 
Eoppa  of  Esa,  Esa  of  Inga,  Inga  of  Angenvit,  Angenvit 
of  Aloe,  Aloe  of  Beonoc,  Beonoc  of  Brand,  Brand  of  Bael- 
daeg,  Baeldaeg  of  Woden,  Woden  of  Friftowulf,  Frifcowulf 
of  Finn,  Finn  of  Godwulf,  Godwulf  of  Geat.— In  Greek, 
"ISa  rfv  'EoTTTreiSrjs,  "Eoirira  'HaelSr)?,  "H<ra  ^IjyeiBrj^ 
"lyya  'Ayyev^iTelSrfs,  &c.  In  the  plural  number  these 
forms  denote  the  race  of;  as  Scyldingas  =  the  Scyldings, 
or  the  race  of  Scyld,  &c.  Edgar  Atheling  means  Edgar 
of  the  race  of  the  nobles. 


10' 


202  GEOTILE  FORMS. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GENTILE    FORMS. 

§  273.  THE  only  word  in  the  present  English  that  re- 
quires explanation  is  the  name  of  the  principality  Wales. 

1.  The  form   is  plural,  however  much  the  meaning 
may  be  singular ;  so  that  the  -s  in  Wale-s  is  the  -s  in 
fathers,  &c. 

2.  It  has  grown  out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  from  wealhas 
= foreigners,   from   wealh  =  a  foreigner,   the   name   by 
which  the  Welsh  are  spoken  of  by  the  Germans  of  Eng- 
land, just  as  the  Italians  are  called  Welsh  by  the  Ger- 
mans of  Germany ;  and  just  as  wal-nuts  = foreign  nuts, 
or  nuces  Gallics.      Welsh  =  weall-isc  =  foreign,  and  is  a 
derived  adjective. 

3.  The  transfer  of  the  name  of  the  people  inhabiting 
a  certain  country  to  the  country  so  inhabited,  was  one  of 
the  commonest  processes  in  both  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old 
English. 


CONNEXION  BETWEEN  NOUN  AND  VEBB.         203 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON  THE  CONNEXION  BETWEEN  THE  NOUN  AND  VERB,  AND  ON 
THE  INFLECTION  OF  THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

§  274.  IN  order  to  understand  clearly  the  use  of  the 
so-called  infinitive  mood  in  English,  it  is  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  two  facts,  one  a  matter  cf  logic,  the  other  a  mat- 
ter of  history. 

In  the  way  of  logic,  the  difference  between  a  noun  and 
a  verb  is  less  marked  than  it  is  in  the  way  of  grammar. 

Grammatically,  the  contrast  is  considerable.  The  in- 
flection of  nouns  expresses  the  ideas  of  sex  as  denoted  by 
gender,  and  of  relation  in  place  as  denoted  by  cases.  That 
of  verbs  rarely  expresses  sex,  and  never  relations  in  place. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  expresses  what  no  noun 
ever  does  or  can  express ;  e.  g.,  the  relation  of  the  agency 
to  the  individual  speaking,  by  means  of  person  ;  the  time 
in  which  acts  take  place,  by  means  of  tense  ;  and  the  con- 
ditions of  their  occurrence,  by  means  of  mood. 

The  idea  of  number  is  the  only  one  that,  on  a  super- 
ficial view,  is  common  to  these  two  important  parts  of 
speech. 

§  275.  Logically,  however,  the  contrast  is  inconsidera- 
ble. A  noun  denotes  an  object  of  which  either  the  senses 
or  the  intellect  can  take  cognizance,  and  a  verb  does  no 
more.  To  move  =  motion,  to  rise  =  rising,  to  err  = 
error,  to  forgive  = forgiveness.  The  only  difference  be- 
tween the  two  parts  of  speech  is  this,  that,  whereas  a  noun 


204          CONNEXION   BETWEEN   NOUN   AND   VERB. 

may  express  any  object  whatever,  verbs  can  only  express 
those  objects  which  consist  in  an  action.  And  it  is  this 
superadded  idea  of  action  that  superadds  to  the  verb  the 
phenomena  of  tense,  mood,  person,  and  voice  ;  in  other 
words,  the  phenomena  of  conjugation. 

§  276.  A  noun  is  a  word  capable  of  declension  only. 
A  verb  is  a  word  capable  of  declension  and  conjugation 
also.  The  fact  of  verbs  being  declined  as  well  as  conjugat- 
ed must  be  remembered.  The  participle  has  the  declen- 
sion of  a  noun  adjective,  the  infinitive  mood  the  declension 
of  a  noun  substantive.  Gerunds  and  supines,  in  lan- 
guages where  they  occur,  are  only  names  for  certain 
cases  of  the  verb. 

§  277.  Although  in  all  languages  the  verb  is  equally 
capable  of  declension,  it  is  not  equally  declined.  The 
Greeks,  for  instance,  used  forms  like 

rb  <f>&oveiv       =  invidia. 
=  invidice. 
lv  =  in  invidia. 


§  278.  Returning,  however,  to  the  illustration  of  the 
substantival  character  of  the  so-called  infinitive  mood,  we 
may  easily  see  — 

a.  That  the  name  of  any  action  may  be  used  without 
any  mention  of  the  agent.  Thus,  we  may  speak  of  the 
simple  fact  of  walking  or  moving,  independently  of  any 
specification  of  the  walker  or  mover. 

yS.  That,  when  actions  are  spoken  of  thus  indefinitely, 
the  idea  of  either  person  or  number  has  no  place  in  the 
conception  ;  from  which  it  follows  that  the  so-called  infini- 
tive mood  must  be  at  once  impersonal,  and  without  the  dis- 
tinction of  singular,  dual,  and  plural. 

y.  That,  nevertheless,  the  ideas  of  time  and  relation 
in  space  have  place  in  the  conception.  "We  can  think  of 


CONNEXION   BETWEEN  NOUN  AND   VERB.         205 

a  person  being  in  the  act  of  striking  a  blow,  of  his  having* 
been  in  the  act  of  striking  a  blow,  or  of  his  being  about  to 
be  in  the  act  of  striking  a  blow.  We  can  also  think  of  a 
person  being  in  the  act  of  doing  a  good  action,  or  of  his 
being  from  the  act  of  doing  a  good  action. 

§  279.  This  has  been  written  to  show  that  verbs  of 
languages  in  general  are  as  naturally  declinable  as  nouns. 
What  follows  will  show  that  the  verbs  of  the  Gothic 
languages  in  particular  were  actually  declined,  and  that 
fragments  of  this  declension  remain  in  the  present  English. 

The  inflection  of  the  verb  in  its  impersonal  (or  in- 
finitive state)  consisted,  in  its  fullest  form,  of  three  cases, 
a  nominative  (or  accusative),  a  dative,  and  a  genitive. 
The  genitive  is  put  last,  because  its  occurrence  in  the 
Gothic  languages  is  the  least  constant. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  the  nominative  (or  accusative)  ended 
in  -an,  with  a  single  n. 

Lufian    =     to  love    =     amare. 

Baernan  =     to  burn  •=    urere. 

Syllan     =     to  give    =•     dare.  4 

In  Anglo-Saxon  the  dative  of  the  infinitive  verb  ended 
in  -nne,  and  was  preceded  by  the  preposition  to. 

To  lufienne     =•    ad  amandum. 
To  baernenne  =     ad  urendum 
To  syllanne    =     ad  dandum. 

The  genitive,  ending  in  -es,  occurs  only  in  Old  High 
German  and  Modern  High  German,  pldsannes,  weinnenes. 

§  280.  With  these  preliminaries  we  can  take  a  clear 
view  of  the  English  infinitives.  They  exist  under  two 
forms,  and  are  referable  to  a  double  origin. 

1.  The  independent  form. — This  is  used  after  the 
words  can,  may,  shall,  will,  and  some  others,  as,  /  can 
speak,  I  may  go,  I  shall  come,  I  will  move.  Here  there 


206         CONNEXION  BETWEEN  NOUN  AND  VERB. 

is  no  preposition,  and  the  origin  of  the  infinitive  is  from 
the  form  in  -an. 

2.  The  prepositional  form. — This  is  used  after  the 
majority  of  English  verbs,  as,  /  wish  to  speak,  I  mean  to 
go,  I  intend  to  come,  I  determine  to  move.  Here  we 
have  the  preposition  to  and  the  origin  of  the  infinitive  is 
from  the  form  -nne. 

§  281.  Expressions  like  to  err  =  error,  to  forgive  = 
forgiveness,  in  lines  like 

"  To  err  is  human,  to  forgive  divine," 

are  very  remarkable.  They  exhibit  the  phenomena  of  a 
nominative  case  having  grown  not  only  out  of  a  dative  but 
out  of  a  dative  plus  its  governing  preposition. 


DEBITED  VEKBS.  207 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

ON    DERIVED    VERBS. 

§  282.  OF  the  divisions  of  verbs  into  active  and 
passive,  transitive  and  intransitive,  unless  there  be  an 
accompanying  change  of  form,  etymology  takes  no  cog- 
nisance. The  forces  of  the  auxiliary  verbs,  and  the 
tenses  to  which  they  are  equivalent,  are  also  points  of 
syntax  rather  than  of  etymology. 

Four  classes,  however,  of  derived  verbs,  as  opposed  to 
simple,  especially  deserve  notice. 

I.  Those  ending  in  -en  ;  as  soften,  whiten,  strengthen, 
&c.     Here  the  -en  is  a  derivational  affix  ;  and  not  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Anglo-Saxon  infinitive  form  -an  (as  lujian, 
bcernan  =  to  love,  to  burn),  and  the  Old  English  -en  (as 
tellen,  loven). 

II.  Transitive  verbs  derived  from  intransitives  by  a 
change  of  the  vowel  of  the  root. 

Primitive  Intransitive  Form.  Derived  Transitive  Form. 

Rise        Raise. 

Lie          ...        Lay. 

Sit          Set 

Fall         Fell 

Drink      Drench. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  these  words  were  more  numerous  than 
they  are  at  present. 


208 


DERIVED   VERBS. 


Intrans.  Infinitive. 
Yrnan,  to  run 
Byrnan,  to  burn 
Drincan,  to  drink 
Sincan,  to  sink 
Liegan,  to  lie 
Sittan,  to  sit 
Drifan,  to  drift 
Feallan,  to  fall 
Weallan,  to  boil 
Fleogan,  to  fly 
Beogan,  to  bow 
Far  an,  to  go 
Wacan,  to  wake 


Trans.  Infinitive. 
^Ernan,  to  make  to  run, 
Baernan,  to  make  to  burn. 
Drencan,  to  drench. 
Sencan,  to  make  to  sink. 
Lecgan,  to  lay. 
Settan,  to  set. 
Draefan,  to  drive. 
Fyllan,  to  fell. 
Wyllan,    to  make  to  boil. 
A-fligan,  to  put  to  flight. 
Bigan,  to  bend. 
Feran,  to  convey. 
Weccan,  to  waken. 


All  these  intransitives  form  their  praeterite  by  a  change 
of  vowel,  as  sink,  sank  ;  all  the  transit! ves  by  the  addition 
of  d  or  £,  as  sell,  seWd. 

III.  Verbs  derived  from  nouns  by  a  change  of  accent ; 
as  to  surv&y,  from  a  survey. 


Nouns. 

Verbs. 

Nouns. 

A'bsent 

absent. 

Contrast 

A'bstract 

abstract 

Converse 

A'ccent 

accent 

Convert 

A'ffix 

affix. 

Descant 

Augment 

augment. 

Desert 

Colleague 

colleague. 

Digest 

Compact 

compact 

E'ssay 

Compound 

compound. 

E'xtract 

Compress 

compress. 

Ferment 

Concert 

concert 

Frequent 

Concrete 

concrete. 

I'mport 

Conduct 

conduct 

I'ncense 

Confine 

confine. 

Tnsult 

Conflict 

conflict 

CXbject 

Conserve 

conserve. 

Perfume 

Consort 

consort 

Permit 

Contract 

contract 

Prefix 

Verbs. 

contrast 

converse, 

convert 

descant 

desert 


extract. 

ferment 

frequent 

import. 

incense. 

insult 

object 

perfume. 

permit 

prefix. 


DERIVED   VERBS. 


209 


Nouns. 
Premise 


Present 

Produce 

Project 

Protest 

Rebel 


Verbs. 

Nouns. 

Verbs. 

premise. 

Record 

record. 

presage. 

Refuse 

refuse. 

present. 

Subject 

subject. 

produce. 

Survey 

survey. 

project. 

Torment 

torment. 

protest. 

Transfer 

transfer. 

rebel 

Transport 

transport 

Walker  attributes  the  change  of  accent  to  the  influence  of 
the  participial  termination  -ing.  All  words  thus  affected 
are  of  foreign  origin. 

IV.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns   by  changing  a  final 
sharp  consonant  into  its  corresponding  flat  one ;  as, 


The  use 
The  breath 
The  cloth 


to  use,          pronounced  uze. 

to  breathe  breadhe. 

to  clothe  —         clodhe. 


210  ON  THE   PEKSONS. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

• 

ON    THE    PERSONS. 

§  283.  COMPARED  with  the  Latin,  the  Greek,  the 
Moeso-Gothic,  and  almost  all  the  ancient  languages, 
there  is,  in  English,  in  respect  to  the  persons  of  the  verbs, 
but  a  very  slight  amount  of  inflection.  This  may  be  seen 
by  comparing  the  English  word  call  with  the  Latin 
voco. 


Sing.  Plur. 

1.  Voc-o  Voc-amus. 

2.  Voc-as  Voc-atis. 

3.  Voc-at  Voc  ant. 


Sing.  Plur. 

Call  CaU. 

CaU-est  CaU. 

*  Call-eth  CaU. 


Here  the  Latins  have  different  forms  for  each  differ- 
ent person,  whilst  the  English  have  forms  for  two  only ; 
and  even  of  these  one  (callest]  is  becoming  obsolete. 
With  the  forms  voc-o,  voc-amus,  voc-atis,  voc-ant,  there  is, 
in  the  current  English,  nothing  correspondent. 

In  the  word  am,  as  compared  with  are  and  art,  we 
find  a  sign  of  the  first  person  singular. 

In  the  old  forms  tellen,  weren,  &c.,  we  have  a  sign  of 
the  plural  number.  f 

§  284.  In  the  Modern  English,  the  Old  English,  and 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  peculiarities  of  our  personal  inflec- 
tions are  very  great.  This  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
tables  of  comparison  : — 

*  Orcall-s. 


ON  THE    PERSONS. 


211 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Singular. 
Plural 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Singular. 
Plural 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Singular. 
Plural 


Present  Tense,  Indicative  Mood. 

Mceso-  Gothic. 

1st  person.  2nd  person.  3rd  person. 

Sokja  Sokeis  Sokei]? — seek. 

Sokjam  Sokeij?  Sokjand. 

Old  High  German. 


Prennu 
Prennames 


Prennis 
Prennat 


Icelandic. 
Kalla  Kallar 

Kollum  Kalli> 


Sokju 
Sokjad 


Old  Saxon. 

Sokis 
Sokjad 


Prennit — burn. 
Prennant. 


Kallar — call. 
Kalla. 


Sokid— seek. 


Anglo-Saxon. 

Lufige  Lufast 


LufiaS 


LufiaS 


Old  English. 

Love  Lovest 

Loven  Loven 

Modern  English. 
Love  Lovest 

Love  Love 


LufaS. 
LufiaS. 


Loveth. 
Loven. 


Loveth  (or  Loves). 
Love. 


§  285.  Herein  remark  ;  1.  the  Anglo-Saxon  addition 
of  t  in  the  second  person  singular  ;  2.  the  identity  in  form 
of  the  three  persons  of  the  plural  number  ;  3.  the  change 
of  -aft  into  -en  in  the  Old  English  plural ;  4.  the  total 
absence  of  plural  forms  in  the  Modern  English ;  5.  the 
change  of  the  th  into  s,  in  loveth  and  loves.  These  are 
points  bearing  especially  upon  the  history  of  the  English 


212  OX  THE   PERSONS. 

persons.     The  following  points  indicate  a  more  general 
question  : 

1.  The  full  form  prennames  in  the  newer  Old  High  Ger- 
man, as  compared  with  sokjam  in  the  old  Mceso-Gothic. 

2.  The  appearance  of  the  r  in  Icelandic. 

3.  The   difference  between  the  Old   Saxon   and   the 
Anglo-Saxon  in  the  second  person  singular;  the  final  t 
being  absent  in  Old  Saxon. 

§  286.  The  person  in  -t. — The  forms  art,  wast,  wert, 
shalt,  wilt,  or  ar-t,  wa$-t,  wer-t,  *shal-t,  wil-t,  are  re- 
markable. Here  the  second  person  singular  ends,  not  in 
-st,  but  in  t.  The  reason  for  this  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
Moeso-Gothic  and  the  Icelandic. 

In  those  languages  the  form  of  the  person  changes 
with  the  tense,  and  the  second  singular  of  the  praeterite 
tense  of  one  conjugation  is,  not  -s,  but  -t ;  as  Moeso- 
Gothic,  sv6r  =  I  swore,  svort  =  thou  swarest,  graip  =  I 
griped,  graipt  —thou  gripedst ;  Icelandic,  brannt  =  thou 
bur  nest,  gaft  =  thou  gavest.  In  the  same  languages  ten 
verbs  are  conjugated  like  praeterites.  Of  these,  in  each 
language,  skal  is  one. 

MCBSO-  Gothic. 


Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 

1.  Skal 

Skulu 

Skulurn. 

2.  Skalt 

Skuluts 

Skulu>. 

3.  Skall 

Skuluts 

Skulun. 

Icelandic. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  Skall 

Skulum. 

2.  Skalt 

SkuluS. 

3.  Skal 

Skulu. 

§  287.   Thou  spakest,  thou  brakest,  thou  sungest* — 

*  Thou  sangest,  thou  drunkest,  &c. — For  a  reason  given  in  the  sequel, 
these  forms  are  less  exceptionable  than  xungest,  drunkest.  &c. 


ON  THE   PERSONS.  213 

In  these  forms  there  is  a  slight  though  natural  anomaly. 
They  belong  to  the  class  of  verbs  which  form  their  prse- 
terite  by  changing  the  vowel  of  the  present ;  as  sing, 
sang,  &c.  Now,  all  words  of  this  sort  in  Anglo-Saxon 
formed  their  second  singular  prseterite,  not  in  -st,  but  in 
-e  ;  as  \k  funde=  thoufoundest,  ]>u  sunge=  thou  sungest. 
The  English  termination  is  derived  from  the  present. 
Observe  that  this  applies  only  to  the  prseterites  formed  by 
changing  the  vowel.  Thou  loved'st  is  Anglo-Saxon  as 
well  as  English,  viz.,  }>&  lufodest. 

§  288.  In  the  northern  dialects  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
the  -$  of  plurals  like  lufiaft  =  we  love  becomes  -s.  In  the 
Scottish  this  change  was  still  more  prevalent : 

The  Scottes  come  that  to  this  day 
Havys  and  Scotland  haldyn  ay. 

Wintoun,  11, 9,  73. 

James  I.  of  England  ends  nearly  all  his  plurals  in  -*•. 


214  NUMBERS   OF   VERBS. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

ON   THE   ]\7UMBERS    OF    VERBS. 

§  289.  As  compared  with  the  present  plural  forms,  we 
love,  ye  love,  they  love,  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  the  truly 
plural  forms,  we  lufiaft,  ge  lufiab,  hi  lufiafc.  The  Old 
English  also  had  a  true  plural  inflection  we  loven,  ye  loven, 
they  loven.  The  present  English  wants  hoth  the  form  in 
-en,  and  the  form  in  ab.  In  other  words,  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  the  Old  English  have  a  plural  personal  char- 
acteristic, whilst  the  Modern  English  has  nothing  to  cor- 
respond with  it. 

§  290.  In  the  forms  luf-ia%>,  and  lov-en,  the  change 
from  singular  to  plural  is  made  by  adding  a  syllable  ;  but 
there  is  no  reason  against  the  inflection  running  thus — 
/  love,  thou  lovest,  he  loves  ;  we  lave,  ye  lave,  they  lave  ; 
in  other  words,  there  is  no  reason  against  the  vowel  of  the 
root  being  changed,  just  as  is  the  case  with  the  form 
speak,  spoke  ;  fall,  fell. 

Now,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  with  a  great  number  of  verbs 
such  a  plural  inflection  not  only  actually  takes  place,  but 
takes  place  most  regularly.  It  takes  place,  however,  in 
the  past  tense  only.  And  this  is  the  case  in  all  the 
Gothic  languages  as  well  as  in  Anglo-Saxon.  Amongst 
the  rest,  in — 


NUMBERS  OF   VERBS. 


215 


Mceso-  Gothic. 


Skain,  /  shone  ;  skinum,  we  shone. 
Smait,  I  smote  ;  smitum,  we  smote. 
Kaus,  /  chose  ;  kusum,  we  chose. 
Laug,  I  lied;  lugum,  we  lied. 


Grab,  I  gave  ;  gebum,  we  gave. 
At,  /  etc ;  6tum,  we  ete. 
Stal,  1  stole ;  stelum,  we  stole. 
Qvani,  /  came  ;  qvemum,  we  came. 


Anglo-Saxon. 


Arn,  /  ran  ;  urnon,  we  run. 

Ongan,  /  began  ;  ongunnon,  we  be- 
gun. 

Span,  /  span  ;  spunnon,  we  spun. 

Sang,  I  sang  ;  sungon,  we  sung. 

Swang,  /  swang ;  swangon,  we 
swung. 


Dranc,  /  drank  ;  druncon,  we  drunk. 
Sane,  /  sank  ;  suncon,  we  sunk. 
Sprang,    /  sprang ;     sprungon,    we 

sprung. 
Swam,     /    swam;     swummon,    we 

swum. 
Rang,  /  rang  ;.  rungon,  we  rung. 


From  these  examples  the  reader  has  himself  drawn 
his  inference  ;  viz.  that  words  like 


Began,  begun. 
Ran,  run. 
Span,  spun. 
Sang,  sung. 
Swang,  swung. 
Sprang,  sprung. 


Sank,  sunk. 
Swam,  swum. 
Rang,  rung. 
Bat,  bit. 
Smote,  smit. 
Drank,  drunk,  <kc., 


generally  called  double  forms  of  the  past  tense,  were 
originally  different  numbers  of  the  same  tense,  the  forms 
in  a,  as  swam,  being  singular,  and  the  forms  in  u,  as 
swum,  plural. 


216  ON  MOODS. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

ON    MOODS. 

§  291.  THE  Anglo-Saxon  infinitive  has  already  been 
considered. 

Between  the  second  plural  imperative,  and  the  second 
plural  indicative,  speak  ye,  and  ye  speak,  there  is  no  dif- 
ference of  form. 

Between  the  second  singular  imperative  speak,  and 
the  second  singular  indicative,  speakest,  there  is  a  differ- 
ence in  form.  * 

Still,  as  the  imperative  form  speak  is  distinguished 
from  the  indicative  form  speakest  by  the  negation  of  a 
character  rather  than  by  the  possession  of  one,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  there  is  in  English  any  imperative  mood. 

§  292.  If  he  speak,  as  opposed  to  if  he  speaks,  is  cha- 
racterized by  a  negative  sign  only,  and  consequently  is  no 
true  example  of  a  subjunctive.  Be,  as  opposed  to  am,  in 
the  sentence  if  it  be  so,  is  a  fresh  word  used  in  a  limited 
sense,  and  consequently  no  true  example  of  a  subjunctive. 
It  is  a  different  word  altogether,  and  is  only  the  subjunc- 
tive of  am,  in  the  way  puss  is  the  vocative  of  cat. 

The  only  true  subjunctive  inflection  in  the  English 
language  is  that  of  were  and  wert,  as  opposed  to  the  indi- 
cative forms  was  and  wast. 


Indicative. 
Singular. 

1,  I  was. 

2.  Thou  wast 


Subjunctive. 

Singular.  Plural. 

If  I  were.  If  we  were. 

If  thou  wert.       If  ye  were. 


3.  He  was.  If  he  were.          If  they  were. 


TENSES   IN   GENERAL.  217 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

ON    TENSES    IN    GENERAL. 

§  293.  THE  nature  of  tenses  in  general  is  best  exhi- 
bited by  reference  to  the  Greek ;  since  in  that  language 
they  are  more  numerous,  and  more  strongly  marked  than 
elsewhere. 

/  strike,  I  struck. — Of  these  words,  the  first  implies 
an  action  taking  place  at  the  time  of  speaking,  the  second 
marks  an  action  that  has  already  taken  place. 

These  two  notions  of  present  and  of  past  time,  being 
expressed  by  a  change  of  form,  are  true  tenses.  If  there 
were  no  change  of  form,  there  would  be  no  change  of 
tense.  They  are  the  only  true  tenses  in  our  language. 
In  /  was  beating,  I  have  beaten,  I  had  beaten,  and  / 
shall  beat,  a  difference  of  time  is  expressed ;  but  as  it  is 
expressed  by  a  combination  of  words,  and  not  by  a 
change  of  form,  no  true  tenses  are  constituted. 

§  294.  In  Greek  the  case  is  different.  TVTTTCO  (typtti) 
=  /  beat ;  ervTrrov  (etypton]  =  /  was  beating  ;  rv-^rco 
(typso)  =  I  shall  beat ;  erv^ra  (etypsa)  =1  beat ;  Terv(f>a 
(tetyfa)  =  /  have  beaten  ;  erervfaw  (etetyfein)  =  I  had 
beaten.  In  these  words  we  have,  of  the  same  mood,  the 
same  voice,  and  the  same  conjugation,  six  different  tenses ; 
whereas,  in  English,  there  are  but  two.  The  forms 
rervcba  and  eri^ra  are  so  strongly  marked,  that  we  recog- 
nise them  wheresoever  they  occur.  The  first  is  formed 
by  a  reduplication  of  the  initial  r,  and,  consequently,  may 

11 


218  TENSES   IX   GEXEEAL. 

be  called  the  reduplicate  form.  As  a  tense  it  is  called 
the  perfect.  In  the  form  erv^jra  an  e  is  prefixed,  and  an  cr 
is  added.  In  the  allied  language  of  Italy  the  e  disappears, 
whilst  the  a  (s]  remains.  "Erin^a  is  said  to  be  an  aorist 
tense.  Scripsi  is  to  scribo  as  ervTrcra  is  to  TUTTTO). 

§  295.  Now  in  the  Latin  language  a  confusion  takes 
place  between  these  two  tenses.  Both  forms  exist.  They 
are  used,  however,  indiscriminately.  The  aorist  form  has, 
besides  its  own,  the  sense  of  the  perfect.  The  perfect  has, 
besides  its  own,  the  sense  of  the  aorist.  In  the  following 
pair  of  quotations,  vixi,  the  aorist  form,  is  translated  / 
have  lived,  while  tetigit,  the  perfect  form,  is  translated  he 
touched. 

Vixi,  et  quern  dederat  cursum  Forttma  peregi ; 

Et  nunc  magna  mei  sub  terras  ibis  imago. —  JRn,  iv. 

Ut  primum  alatis  tetigit  magalia  plantis. — JEn.  iv. 

§  296.  When  a  difference  of  form  has  ceased  to  ex- 
press a  difference  of  meaning,  it  has  become  superfluous. 
This  is  the  case  with  the  two  forms  in  question.  One  of 
them  may  be  dispensed  with ;  and  the  consequence  is, 
that,  although  in  the  Latin  language  both  the  perfect  and 
the  aorist  forms  are  found,  they  are,  with  few  exceptions, 
never  found  in  the  same  word.  Wherever  there  is  the 
perfect,  the  aorist  is  wanting,  and  vice  versci.  The  two 
ideas  /  have  struck  and  /  struck  are  merged  into  the  no- 
tion of  past  time  in  general,  and  are  expressed  by  one  of 
two  forms,  sometimes  by  that  of  the  Greek  perfect,  and 
sometimes  by  that  of  the  Greek  aorist.  On  account  of 
this  the  grammarians  have  cut  down  the  number  of  Latin 
tenses  to  five  :  forms  like  cucurri  and  vixi  being  dealt 
with  as  one  and  the  same  tense.  The  true  view  is,  that  in 
curro  the  aorist  form  is  replaced  by  the  perfect,  and  in 
vixi  the  perfect  form  is  replaced  by  the  aorist. 


TENSES   IN   GENERAL. 


219 


§  297.  In  the  present  English  there  is  no  undoubted 
perfect  or  reduplicate  form.  The  form  moved  corresponds 
in  meaning  not  with  rerv^a  and  momordi,  but  with  eYin/ra 
and  vixi.  Its  sense  is  that  of  erinjra,  and  not  that  of  re- 
rv(f)a.  The  notion  given  by  rerv^a  we  express  by  the 
circumlocution  /  have  beaten.  We  have  no  such  form  as 
bebeat  or  memove.  In  the  Mceso-Gothic,  however,  there  was 
a  true  reduplicate  form  ;  in  other  words,  a  perfect  tense  as 
well  as  an  aorist.  It  is  by  the  possession  of  this  form 
that  the  verbs  of  the  first  six  conjugations  are  character- 
ized. 

English. 

I  have  folded,  or  I  folded. 
I  have  fed,  or  /  fed. 
I  have  hanged,  or  I  hanged. 
I  have  called,  or  /  called. 
I  have  played,  or  1  played. 
I  have  run,  or  /  ran. 
I  have  slept,  or  /  slept. 
I  have  laughed,  or  I  laught. 
I  have  sown,  or  I  sowed. 
I  have  wept,  or  /  wept. 
I  have  touched,  or  /  touched. 

In  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  the  perfect  forms  have, 
besides  their  own,  an  aorist  sense,  and  vice  versa. 

In  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  few  (if  any)  words  are 
found  in  both  forms. 

In  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  the  two  forms  are  dealt 
with  as  a  single  tense ;  Idild  being  called  the  prseterite  of 
Idia,  and  svor  the  praeterite  of  svara.  The  true  view, 
however,  is  that  in  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  there  are 
two  past  tenses,  each  having  a  certain  latitude  of  meaning, 
and  each,  in  certain  words,  replacing  the  other. 

The  reduplicate  form,  in  other  words,  the  perfect  tense, 
is  current  in  none  of  the  Gothic  languages  except  the 


Mceso-Gothic. 

English. 

Mceso-Gothic-, 

1st 

Fal>a, 

I  fold      . 

Fdifal>, 

Halda, 

I  feed       . 

Haihald, 

Haha, 

I  hang     . 

Haihah, 

2nd. 

Haita, 

I  call       . 

Haihait, 

Laika, 

I  play      . 

Lailaik, 

3rd. 

Hlaupa, 

I  run 

Hlailaup, 

4th. 

Slepa, 

I  sleep     . 

Saizlep, 

5th. 

Laia, 

I  laugh    . 

Lailo, 

Saija, 

I  sow 

Saiso, 

6th. 

Greta, 

I  weep 

Gaigrot, 

Teka, 

I  touch     . 

Taitok, 

220  TENSES  IN   GENEKAL. 

Moeso-Gothic.  A  trace  of  it  is  said  to  be  found  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  of  the  seventh  century  in  the  word  heht, 
which  is  considered  to  be  he-ht.  the  Moeso-Gothic  hdihdit, 
vocavi.  Did  from  do  is  also  considered  to  be  a  redupli- 
cate form. 

§  298.  In  the  English  language  the  tense  correspond- 
ing with  the  Greek  aorist  and  the  Latin  forms  like  vixi,  is 
formed  after  two  modes  ;  1,  as  in  fell,  sang,  and  took, 
from  fall,  sing,  and  take,  by  changing  the  vowel  of  the 
present :  2,  as  in  moved  and  wept,  from  move  and  weep, 
by  the  addition  of  -d  or  -t ;  the  -d  or  -t  not  being  found 
in  the  original  word,  but  being  a  fresh  element  added  to  it. 
In  forms,  on  the  contrary,  like  sang  and  fell,  no  addition 
being  made,  no  new  element  appears.  The  vowel,  indeed, 
is  changed,  but  nothing  is  added.  Verbs,  then,  of  the 
first  sort,  may  be  said  to  form  their  praeterites  out  of 
themselves  ;  whilst  verbs  of  the  second  sort  require  some- 
thing from  without.  To  speak  in  a  metaphor,  words  like 
sang  and  fell  are  comparatively  independent.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  the  German  grammarians  call  the  tenses  formed 
by  a  change  of  vowel  the  strong  tenses,  the  strong  verbs, 
the  strong  conjugation,  or  the  strong  order ;  and  those 
formed  by  the  addition  of  d  or  t,  the  weak  tenses,  the 
weak  verbs,  the  weak  conjugation,  or  the  weak  order. 
Bound,  spoke,  gave,  lay,  &c.,  are  strong ;  moved,  fa- 
voured, instructed,  &c.,  are  weak. 


THE   STRONG  TENSES.  221 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


THE    STRONG    TENSES. 


§  299.  THE  strong  praeterites  are  formed  from  the 
present  by  changing  the  vowel,  as  sing,  sang :  speak, 
spoke. 

In  Anglo-Saxon,  several  praeterites  change,  in  their 
plural,  the  vowel  of  their  singular ;  as 


Ic  sang,  /  sang. 

]>u  swnge,  thou  sungest. 

He  sang,  he  sang. 


We  swngon,  we  sung. 
Ge  swngon,  ye  sung. 
Hi  swngon,  they  sung. 


The  bearing  of  this  fact  upon  the  praeterites  has  al- 
ready been  indicated.  In  a  great  number  of  words  we 
have  a  double  form,  as  ran  and  run,  sang  and  sung, 
drank  and  drunk,  &c.  -One  of  these  forms  is  derived 
from  the  singular,  and  the  other  from  the  plural. 

In  cases  where  but  one  form  is  preserved,  that  form  is 
not  necessarily  the  singular ;  indeed,  it  is  often  the  plural ; 
— e.  g.,  Ic  fond,  I  found,  we  fwndon,  we  found,  are  the 
Anglo-Saxon  forms.  Now  the  present  word,  found  comes, 
not  from  the  singular  fand,  but  from  the  plural  fundon  ; 
although  in  the  Lowland  Scotch  dialect  and  in  the  old 
writers,  the  singular  form  occurs  ; 

Donald  Caird  finds  orra  things, 

Where  Allan  Gregor  fand  the  tings. — SCOTT. 


222  THE  STRONG  TENSES. 

§  300.  The  verbs  wherein  the  double  form  of  the 
present  prseterite  is  thus  explained,  fall  into  two 
classes. 

1.  In  the  first  class,  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms  were  a  in 
the  singular,  and  i  in  the  plural ;  as — 


Sing. 
Scean 
Aras 
Smat 


This  accounts  for, — 


Plur. 

Scinon  (we  shone). 
Arisen  (we  arose). 
Smiton  (we  smote). 


Present.  Prcet.  from  Sing.  form.  Prcet.  from  Plur.  form. 

Rise  Rose  *Rk 

Smite  Smote  Smit. 

Ride  Rode  *Rid. 

Stride  Strode  Strid. 

Slide  *Slode  Slid. 

Chide  *Chode  Chid. 

Drive  Drove  *Driv. 

Thrive  Throve  Thriv. 

Write  Wrote  Writ 

Slit  *Slat  Slit 

Bite  *Bat  Bit 

2.   In  the  second  class,  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms  were  a 
in  the  singular,  and  u  in  the  plural,  as — 


Sing. 

Band 

Fand 

Grand 

Wand 


Plural. 

Bundon  (we  bound). 
Fundon  (we  found). 
Grundon  (we  ground). 
Wundon  (we  wound). 


The  forms  marked  thus  *  are  either  obsolete  or  provincial 


THE   STRONG  TENSES. 


223 


This  accounts  for — 


Present. 
Swim 
Begin 
Spin 
Win 
Sing 
Swing 
Spring 
Sting 
Ring 
Wring 
Fling 
*Hing 
String 
Sink 
Drink 
Shrink 
Stink 
Melt 
Help 
Delve 
Stick 
Run 
Burst 
Bind 
Find 


Prcet.from  Sing',  form. 
Swam 
Began 
*Span 
*Wan 


*Swang     , 

Sprang 
*Stang 

Rang 
*Wrang 

Flang 

Hang 
*Strang 

Sank 

Drank 

Shrank 
*Stank 
*Molt 
*Holp 
*Dolv 
*Stack 

Ran 

Brast 

Band 
*Fand 


Prcet.  from  PI.  form. 
Swum. 
Begun. 
Spun. 
fWon. 
Sung. 
Swung. 
Sprung. 
Stung. 
Rung. 
Wrung. 
Flung. 
Hung. 
Strung. 
Sunk 
Drunk 
Shrunk 
Stunk. 


Stuck 

Run. 

Burst. 

Bound. 

Found. 


§  301.  The  following  double  praeterites  are  differently 
explained.  The  primary  one  often  (but  not  always)  is 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  participle,  the  secondary  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  prceterite. 


•Present. 
Cleave 
Steal 


Primary  Prceterite. 
Clove 
Stole 


Secondary  Prceterite. 
*Clave. 
•Stele. 


*  Obsolete. 


f  Sounded  wun. 


224 


THE  STRONG  TEXSES. 


Present. 
Speak 

Primary  Prceterite.         Secondary  Prceterite. 
Spoke                              Spake. 

Swear 

Swore 

Sware. 

Bear 

Bore 

Bare. 

Tear 

Tore 

*Tare. 

Wear 

Wore 

*Ware. 

Break 

Broke 

Brake. 

Get 

Got 

*Gat. 

Tread 

Trod 

Trad. 

Bid 

Bade 

Bid. 

Eat 

Ate 

Etc. 

§  302.  The 

following  verbs  have  only 

a  single  form 

for  the  praeterite,  — 

Present. 

Prceterite. 

Present. 

Prceterite. 

Fall 

Fell 

Forsake 

Forsook. 

Befall 

Befell. 

Eat 

Ate. 

Hold 

Held. 

Give 

Gave. 

Draw 

Drew. 

Wake 

Woke. 

Slay 

Slew. 

Grave 

Grova 

Fly 

Flew. 

Shape 

Shope. 

Blow 

Blew. 

Strike 

Struck. 

Crow 

Crew. 

Shine 

Shone. 

Know 

Knew. 

Abide 

Abode. 

Grow 

Grew. 

Strive 

Strove. 

Throw 

Threw. 

Climb 

Clomb. 

Let 

Let. 

Hide 

Hid. 

Beat 

Beat 

Dig 

Dug. 

Come 

Came. 

Cling 

Clung. 

Heave 

Hove. 

Swell 

SwolL 

Weave 

Wove. 

Grind 

Ground. 

Freeze 

Froze. 

Wind 

Wound. 

Shear 

Shore. 

Choose 

Chose. 



Quoth. 

Stand 

Stood. 

Seethe 

Sod. 

Lie 

Lay.. 

Shake 

Shook. 

See 

Saw. 

Take 

Took 

*  Obsolete. 


THE   STRONG  TENSES.  225 

§  303.  An  arrangement  of  the  preceding  verbs  into 
classes,  according  to  the  change  of  vowel,  is  by  no  means 
difficult,  even  in  the  present  stage  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  it  was  easier  still.  It  is 
also  easier  in  the  provincial  dialects,  than  in  the  literary 
English.  Thus,  when 

Break  is  pronounced  Breek, 
Sear  £eer, 

Tear  Teer, 

Swear          —  Sweer, 

Wear  Weer, 

as  they  actually  are  by  many  speakers,  they  come  in  the 
same  class  with, — 

Speak  pronounced  Speek, 
Cleave         —          Cleeve, 

and  form  their  praeterite  by  means  of  a  similar  change, 
i.  e.,  by  changing  the  sound  of  the  ee  in  feet  (spelt  ea) 
into  that  of  the  a  in  fate  ;•  viewed  thus,  the  irregularity  is 
less  than  it  appears  to  be  at  first  sight. 

Again,  tread  is  pronounced  tredd,  but  many  provin- 
cial speakers  say  treed,  and  so  said  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
whose  form  was  ic  trede  =  I  tread.  Their  prseterite  was 
treed.  This  again  subtracts  from  the  apparent  irre- 
gularity. 

Instances  of  this  kind  may  be  multiplied ;  the  whole 
question,  however,  of  the  conjugation  of  the  strong  verbs 
is  best  considered  after  the  perusal  of  the  next  chapter. 


226  THE  WEAK  TENSES. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

THE    WEAK    TENSES. 

§  304.  THE  praeterite  tense  of  the  weak  verbs  is 
formed  by  the  addition  of  -d  or  -t. 

If  necessary,  the  syllable  -ed  is  substituted  for  -d. 

The  current  statement  that  the  syllable  -ed,  rather 
than  the  letter  -d  is  the  sign  of  the  prseterite  tense,  is 
true  only  in  regard  to  the  written  language.  In  stabbed, 
moved,  bragged,  whizzed,  judged,  filled,  slurred, 
slammed,  shunned,  barred,  strewed,  the  e  is  a  point  of 
spelling  only.  In  language,  except  in  declamation,  there 
is  no  second  vowel  sound.  The  -d  comes  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  final  letter  of  the  original  word,  and  the 
number  of  syllables  remains  the  same  as  it  was  before. 
We  say  stabd,  moved,  bragd,  &c. 

§  305.  When,  however,  the  original  word  ends  in  -d  or 
-t,  as  slight  or  brand,  then,  and  then  only  is  there  the 
real  addition  of  the  syllable  -ed  ;  as  in  slighted,  branded. 

This  is  necessary,  since  the  combinations  slightt  and 
brandd  are  unpronounceable. 

Whether  the  addition  be  -d  or  -t  depends  upon  the 
flatness  or  sharpness  of  the  preceding  letter. 

After  b,  v,  th  (as  in  clothe],  g,  or  z,  the  addition  is  -d. 
This  is  a  matter  of  necessity.  We  say  stabd,  movd, 
clothd,  braggd,  whizzd,  because  stabt,  mdvt,  clotht, 
braggt,  whizzt,  are  unpronounceable. 

After  /,  m,  n,  r,  w,  y.  or  a  vowel,  the  addition  is  also 


THE   WEAK   TENSES. 

-d.  This  is  the  habit  of  the  English  language.  Filt, 
slurt,  strayt,  (fee.,  are  as  pronounceable  as  Jilld,  slurrd, 
strayd,  &c.  It  is  the  habit,  however,  of  the  English 
language  to  prefer  the  latter  forms. 

All  this,  as  the  reader  has  probably  observed,  is 
merely  the  reasoning  concerning  the  s,  in  words  like 
father's,  &c.,  applied  to  another  letter  and  to  another 
part  of  speech. 

§  306.  The  verbs  of  the  weak  conjugation  fall  into 
three  classes. 

I.  In  the  first  there  is  the  simple  addition  of  -d,  -t, 
or  -ed. 


Serve,  served. 
Cry,  cried. 
Betray,  betrayed. 
Expell,  expelled. 
Accuse,  accused. 
Instruct,  instructed. 
Invite,  invited. 
Waste,  wasted. 


Dip,  dipped  (dipt). 
Slip,  slipped  (dipt). 
Step,  stepped  (slept). 
Look,  looked  (lookt). 
Pluck,  plucked  (pluckt). 
Toss,  tossed  (tost). 
Push,  pushed  (pusht). 
Confess,  confessed  (confest.) 


To  this  class  belong  the  greater  part  of  the  weak 
verbs  and  all  verbs  of  foreign  origin. 

§  307.  II.  In  the  second  class,  besides  the  addition  of 
-t  or  -d,  the  vowel  is  shortened, 

Present.  Prceterite. 
Creep  Crept. 

Keep  Kept. 

Sleep  Slept. 

Sweep  Swept. 

Weep  Wept 

Lose  Lost. 

Mean  *Meant. 

*  Pronounced  ment. 


228  THE  WEAK  TENSES. 

Here  the  final  consonant  is  -t. 

Present.  Prceterite. 
Flee  Fled. 

Hear  *Heard. 

Shoe  Shod. 

Say  fSaid. 

Here  the  final  consonant  is  -d. 

§  308.  III.  In  the  second  class  the  vowel  of  the  pre- 
sent tense  was  shortened  in  the  praeterite.  In  the  third 
class  it  is  changed. 


Tell,  told. 
Will,  would. 


Sell,  sold. 
Shall,  should. 


To  this  class  belong  the  remarkable  praeterites  of  the 
verbs  seek,  beseech,  catch,  teach,  bring,  think,  and  buy, 
viz.,  sought,  besought,  caught,  taught,  brought,  thought, 
and  bought.  In  all  these,  the  final  consonant  is  either  g 
or  k,  or  else  a  sound  allied  to  those  mutes.  When  the 
tendency  of  these  sounds  to  become  h  and  y,  as  well  as 
to  undergo  farther  changes,  is  remembered,  the  forms  in 
point  cease  to  seem  anomalous.  In  wrought,  from  work, 
there  is  a  transposition.  In  laid  and  said  the  present 
forms  make  a  show  of  regularity  which  they  have  not. 
The  true  original  forms  should  be  legde  and  scegde,  the 
infinitives  being  lecgan,  secgan.  In  these  words  the  i 
represents  the  semivowel  y,  into  which  the  original  g  was 
changed.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forms  of  the  other  words  are 
as  follows : — 

Bycan,  bohte.  I  •  Bringan,  brohte. 

Secan,  sohte.  >eecan,  >6hte. 

Wyrcan,  worhte. 


*  Pronounced  herd.  f  Pronounced  sed. 


THE  WEAK  TENSES.  229 

§  309.  Out  of  the  three  classes  into  which  the  weak 
verbs  in  Anglo-Saxon  are  divided,  only  one  takes  a 
vowel  before  the  d  or  t.  The  other  two  add  the  syllables 
-te  or  -de,  to  the  last  letter  of  the  original  word.  The 
vowel  that,  in  one  out  of  the  three  Anglo-Saxon  classes, 
precedes  d  is  o.  Thus  we  have  hifian,  lufode  ;  clypian, 
clypode.  In  the  other  two  classes  the  forms  are  re- 
spectively barnan,  bcernde  ;  and  tellan,  tealde,  no  vowel 
being  found.  The  participle,  however,  as  stated  above, 
ended,  not  in  -de  or  -te,  but  in  -d  or  -t ;  and  in  two  out 
of  the  three  classes  it  was  preceded  by  a  vowel ;  the 
vowel  being  e, — gelufod,  bcerned,  geteald.  Now  in  those 
conjugations  where  no  vowel  preceded  the  d  of  the  prae- 
terite,  and  where  the  original  word  ended  in  -d  or  -t,  a 
difficulty,  which  has  already  been  indicated,  arose.  To 
add  the  sign  of  the  praeterite  to  a  word  like  eard-ian  (to 
dwell)  was  an  easy  matter,  inasmuch  as  eardian  was  a 
word  belonging  to  the  first  class,  and  in  the  first  class  the 
praeterite  was  formed  in  -ode.  Here  the  vowel  o  kept  the 
two  eTs  from  coming  in  contact.  With  words,  however, 
like  metan  and  sendan,  this  was  not  the  case.  Here  no 
vowel  intervened ;  so  that  the  natural  praeterite  forms 
were  met-te,  send-de,  combinations  wherein  one  of  the 
letters  ran  every  chance  of  being  dropped  in  the  pronunci- 
ation. Hence,  with  the  exception  of  the  verbs  in  the  first 
class,  words  ending  in  -d  or  -t  in  the  root  admitted  no  ad- 
ditional d  or  t  in  the  praeterite.  This  difficulty,  existing 
in  the  present  English  as  it  existed  in  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
modifies  the  praeterites  of  most  words  ending  in  -t  or  -d. 

§  310.  In  several  words  there  is  the  actual  addition  of 
the  syllable  -ed  ;  in  other  words  d  is  separated  from  the 
last  letter  of  the  original  word  by  the  addition  of  a  vowel ; 
as  ended,  instructed,  (fee. 

§  311.  In  several  words  the  final  -d  is  changed  into  -£, 


230  THE   WEAK  TEXSES. 

as  bend,  bent ;  rend,  rent ;  send,  sent ;  gild,  gilt  ;  build, 
built ;  spend,  spent,  &c. 

§  312.  In  several  words  the  vowel  of  the  root  is 
changed  ;  as  feed,  fed  ;  bleed,  bled  ;  breed,  bred  ;  meet, 
met :  speed,  sped  ;  read,  read,  &c.  Words  of  this  last- 
named  class  cause  occasional  difficulty  to  the  gram- 
marian. No  addition  is  made  to  the  root,  and,  in  this 
circumstance,  they  agree  with  the  strong  verbs.  More- 
over, there  is  a  change  of  the  vowel.  In  this  circum- 
stance also  they  agree  with  the  strong  verbs.  Hence 
with  forms  like  fed  and  led  we  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  con- 
jugation. This  doubt  we  have  three  means  of  settling,  as 
may  be  shown  by  the  word  beat. 

a.  By  the  form  of  the  participle. — The  -en  in  beaten 
shows  that  the  word  beat  is  strong. 

b.  By  the  nature  of  the  vowel. — The  weak  form  of  to 
beat  would  be  bet,  or  bedt,  after  the  analogy  of  feed  and 
read.     By  some  persons  the  word  is  pronounced  bet,  and 
with  those  who  do  so  the  word  is  weak. 

c.  By  a  knowledge  of  the  older  forms. — The  Anglo- 
Saxon   form   is  bedte,  beot.     There   is  no  such   a  weak 
form  as  beate,  bcette.     The  prseterite  of  sendan  is  sende, 
weak.     There  is  in  Anglo-Saxon  no  such  form  as  sand, 
strong. 

In  all  this  we  see  a  series  of  expedients  for  distinguish- 
ing the  praeterite  form  from  the  present,  when  the  root 
ends  with  the  same  sound  with  which  the  affix  begins. 

The  change  from  a  long  vowel  to  a  short  one,  as  in 
feed,  fed,  &c.,  can  only  take  place  where  there  is  a  long 
vowel  to  be  changed. 

Where  the  vowels  are  short,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  word  ends  in  -d,  the  ~d  of  the  present  may  become  -t 
in  the  praeterite.  Such  is  the  case  with  bend,  bent. 

When  there  is  no  long  vowel  to  shorten,  and  no  -d 


THE   WEAK   TENSES.  231 

to  change  into  -t,  the  two  tenses,   of  necessity,   remain 
alike  ;  such  is  the  case  with  cut,  cost,  &c. 

§  313.  The  following  verbs  form  their  prseterite  in 
-t:— 

Present.  frcetcrite. 

Leave  f  Left  not    \  Leaved! 

Cleave                              Cleft  —  Cleaved. 

Bereave                            Bereft  —  Bereaved! 

Deal  *Deal£  —  Dealed. 

Feel                                  Fel*  —  Feeled. 

Dream  •)•  Dremt  y—  Dreamed*. 

Learn  f  Lern£  —  Learned. 

§  314.  Certain  so-called  irregularities  may  now  be 
noticed. — Made,  had. — In  these  words  there  is  nothing 
remarkable  but  the  ejection  of  a  consonant.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  forms  are  macode  and  hcefde,  respectively.  The 
words,  however,  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  change,  are 
not  upon  a  par.  The/  in  hafde  was  probably  sounded 
as  v.  Now  v  is  a  letter  excessively  liable  to  be  ejected, 
which  k  is  not.  K,  before  it  is  ejected,  is  generally 
changed  into  either  g  or  y. 

Would,  should,  could. — It  must  not  be  imagined  that 
could  is  in  the  same  predicament  with  these  words.  In 
will  and  shall  the  -I  is  part  of  the  original  word.  This 
is  not  the  case  with  can.  For  the  form  could,  see  §  331. 

§  315.  Aught. — In  Anglo-Saxon  ahte,  the  prseterite 
of  the  present  form  ah,  plural  agon. — As  late  as  the  time 
of  Elizabeth  we  find  owe  used  for  own.  The  present 
form  own  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  plural  agon. 
Aught  is  the  prseterite  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  ah  ;  owed  of 
the  English  owe  =  debeo  ;  owned  of  the  English  own  = 

*  Pronounced  delt. 

f  So  pronounced. 

\  Pronounced  leevd,  cleevd,  bereevd,  deeld,  feeld,  dreemd,  lernd. 


232  THE   WEAK  TENSES. 

possideo.  The  word  own,  in  the  expression  to  own  to  a 
thing,  has  a  totally  different  origin.  It  comes  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  an  (plural,  unnon)  =  I  give,  or  grant  = 
concedo. 

§  316.  Durst. — The  verb  dare  is  both  transitive  and 
intransitive.  We  can  say  either  /  dare  do  such  a  thing, 
or  /  dare  (challenge)  such  a  man  to  do  it.  This,  in  the 
present  tense,  is  unequivocally  correct.  In  the  past  the 
double  power  of  the  word  dare  is  ambiguous  ;  still  it  is, 
to  my  mind  at  least,  allowable.  We  can  certainly  say 
/  dared  him  io  accept  my  challenge;  and  we  can, 
perhaps,  say  /  dared  venture  on  the  expedition.  In  this 
last  sentence,  however,  durst  is  the  preferable  expres- 
sion. 

Now,  although  dare  is  both  transitive  and  intransi- 
tive, durst  is  only  intransitive.  It  never  agrees  with 
the  Latin  word  provoco  ;  only  with  the  Latin  word  auedo. 
Moreover,  the  word  durst  has  both  a  present  and  a  past 
sense.  The  difficulty  which  it  presents  consists  in  the 
presence  of  the  -st,  letters  characteristic  of  the  second 
person  singular,  but  here  found  in  all  the  persons  alike ; 
as  I  durst,  they  durst,  &c. 

This  has  still  to  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for. 

Must. — A  form  common  to  all  persons,  numbers,  and 
tenses.  That  neither  the  -5  nor  the  -t  are  part  of  the 
original  root,  is  indicated  by  the  Scandinavian  form  maae 
(Danish),  pronounced  moh  ;  praeterite  maatt. 

This  form  has  still  to  be  satisfactorily  accounted 
for. 

Wist. — In  its  present  form  a  regular  prseterite  from 
wiss  =  know.  The  difficulties  of  this  word  arise  from  the 
parallel  forms  wit  (as  in  to  wit),  and  wot  =  knew.  The 
following  are  the  forms  of  this  peculiar  word  : — 

In  Moeso-Gothic,    1   sing.   pres.   ind.   vait ;    2.    do., 


THE  WEAK  TENSES.  233 

vaist ;  1  pi.  vitum  ;  prseterite  1  s.  vissa ;  2  vissess ;  1 
pi.  vissedum.  From  the  form  vaist  we  see  that  the 
second  singular  is  formed  after  the  manner  of  must ;  that 
is,  vciist  stands  instead  of  vait-t.  From  the  form  vissedum 
we  see  that  the  prseterite  is  not  strong,  but  weak ;  therefore 
that  vissa  is  euphonic  for  vista. 

In  Anglo-Saxon. —  Wat,  wast,  witon,  wiste,  and  wisse, 
wiston. — Hence  the  double  forms,  wiste,  and  wisse,  verify 
the  statement  concerning  the  Moeso-Grothic  vissa. 

In  Icelandic. —  Veit,  veizt,  vitum,  vissi.  Danish  ved, 
vide,  vidste.  Observe  the  form  vidste  ;  since,  in  it,  the  d 
of  the  root  (in  spelling,  at  least)  is  preserved.  The  t  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  wiste  is  the  t,  not  of  the  root,  but  of  the 
inflection. 

In  respect  to  the  four  forms  in  question,  viz.,  wit,  wot, 
wiss,  wisst,  the  first  seems  to  be  the  root ;  the  second  a 
strong  prseterite  regularly  formed,  but  used  (like  oUa  in 
Greek)  with  a  present  sense  ;  the  third  a  weak  prseterite, 
of  which  the  -t  has  been  ejected  by  a  euphonic  process, 
used  also  with  a  present  sense  ;  the  fourth  is  a  second 
singular  from  wiss  after  the  manner  of  wert  from  were, 
a  second  singular  from  wit  after  the  manner  of  mMst,  a 
secondary  prseterite  from  wiss,  or  finally,  the  form  wisse, 
anterior  to  the  operation  of  the  euphonic  process  that 
ejected  the  -t. 

§  317.  In  the  phrase  this  will  do  =  this  will  answer  the 
purpose,  the  word  do  is  wholly  different  from  the  word 
do,  meaning  to  act.  In  the  first  case  it  is  equivalent  to 
the  Latin  valere  ;  in  the  second  to  the  Latin  facere.  Of 
the  first  the  Anglo-Saxon  inflection  is  deah,  dugon,  dohte. 
dohtest,  &c.  Of  the  second  it  is  d6,  do¥>,  dyde,  &e.  I 
doubt  whether  the  prseterite  did,  as  equivalent  to  valebat 
=  was  good  for,  is  correct.  In  the  phrase  it  did  for  him 
= it  finished  him,  either  meaning  may  be  allowed. 


234  THE   WEAK  TEASES. 

In  the  present  Danish  they  write  duger,  but  say  duer : 
as  duger  et  noget  ?  =  Is  it  worth  anything  ?  pronounced 
dooer  deh  note  ?  This  accounts  for  the  ejection  of  the  g. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  form  dedh  does  the  same. 

§  318.  Mind — mind  and  do  so  and  so. — In  this  sen- 
tence the  word  mind  is  wholly  different  from  the  noun 
mind.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forms  are  geman,  gemanst, 
gemunon,  without  the  -d  ;  this  letter  occurring  only  in 
the  praeterite  tense  (gemunde,  gemundori),  of  which  it  is 
the  sign.  Mind  is,  then,  a  praeterite  form  with  a  present 
sense  ;  whilst  minded  (as  in  he  minded  his  business)  is 
an  instance  of  excess  of  inflection  ;  in  other  words,  it  is  a 
praeterite  formed  from  a  praeterite. 

§  319.  Yode. — The  obsolete  praeterite  of  go,  now  re- 
placed by  went,  the  praeterite  of  wend.  Regular,  except 
that  the  initial  g  has  become  y. 

§  320.  Did,— See  §  317. 

Did,  from  do  =facio,  is  a  strong-  verb.  This  we  infer 
from  the  form  of  its  participle  done. 

If  so  the  final  -d  is  not  the  same  as  the  -d  in  moved. 
What  is  it  ?  There  are  good  grounds  for  believing  that 
in  the  word  did  we  have  a  single  instance  of  the  old  re- 
duplicate preterite.  If  so,  it  is  the  latter  d  which  is 
radical,  and  the  former  which  is  inflectional. 


ON   CONJUGATION. 


235 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


ON    CONJUGATION. 


§  321.  ATTENTION  is  directed  to  the  following  list  of 
verbs.  In  the  present  English  they  all  form  the  prseter- 
ite  in  -d  or  -t ;  in  Anglo-Saxon,  they  all  formed  it  by  a 
change  of  the  vowel.  In  other  words  they  are  weak  verbs 
that  were  once  strong'. 


Present. 

Wreak 

Fret 

Mete 

Shear 

Braid 

Knead 

Dread 

Sleep 

Fold 

Wield 

Wax 

Leap 

Sweep 

Weep 

Sow 

Bake 

Gnaw 

Laugh 

Wade 


PrcBterites. 

Anglo-Saxon. 

Prceterite. 

Present. 

Preterite. 

Wreaked. 

Wrece 

Wra'c. 

Fretted. 

Frete 

Fra't. 

Meted. 

Mete 

Mse't. 

Sheared 

Scere 

•    Scear. 

Braided. 

Brede 

Bra/d. 

Kneaded. 

Cnede 

Cnaj'd. 

Dreaded. 

Drse'de 

Dred. 

Slept 
Folded. 

Slape 
Fealde 

Slep. 
Feold. 

Wielded. 

.    Wealde 

Weold. 

Waxed. 

Weaxe 

Weox. 

Leapt. 
Swept. 
Wept. 
Sowed. 

Hleape 
Swape 
Wepe 
Sawe 

Hleop. 
Sweop. 
Weop. 
Seow. 

Baked. 

Bace 

Bok. 

Gnawed. 
Laughed. 
Waded. 

Gnage 
Hlihhe 
Wade 

Gnoh 
Hloh. 
W6d. 

236 


ON  CONJUGATION. 


English. 

Anglo-Saxon. 

Present. 

Prceterite. 

Present. 

Prceterite. 

Lade 

Laded 

Hlade 

Hlod 

Grave 

Graved. 

Grafe 

Gro£ 

Shave 

Shaved. 

Scafe 

Sco£ 

Step 

Stepped 

Steppe 

Stop. 

Wash 

Washed. 

Wacse 

Woes. 

Bellow 

Bellowed. 

Beige 

Bealh. 

Swallow 

Swallowed. 

Swelge 

Swealh. 

Mourn 

Mourned. 

Murne 

Mearn. 

Spurn 

Spurned 

Spume 

Spearn. 

Carve 

Carved 

Ceorfe 

Cear£ 

Starve 

Starved 

Steorfe 

Ster£ 

Thresh 

Threshed 

}>ersce 

)»aersc. 

Hew 

Hewed. 

Heawe 

Heow. 

Flow 

Flowed 

Flowe 

Fleow. 

Row 

Rowed 

Rowe 

Reow. 

Creep 

Crept 

Creope 

Creap. 

Dive 

Dived. 

Deofe 

Dea£ 

Shove 

Shoved. 

Sceofe 

Sced£ 

Chew 

Chewed 

Ceowe 

Cedw. 

Brew 

Brewed 

Breowe 

Breaw. 

Lock 

Locked 

Luce 

Leac. 

Suck 

Sucked 

Suce 

Seac. 

Reek 

Reeked. 

Reoce 

Reac. 

Smoke 

Smoked 

Smeoce 

Smeaa 

Bow 

Bowed. 

Beoge 

Beah. 

Lie 

Lied 

Leoge 

Leah. 

Gripe 

Griped 

Gripe 

Grap. 

Span 

Spanned 

Spanne 

Sp^n. 

Eke 

Eked 

Eace 

E6c. 

Fare 

Fared. 

Fare 

For. 

§  322.  Respecting  the  strong"  verb,  the  following  gen- 
eral statements  may  be  made : 

1.  Many  strong  verbs  become  weak ;  whilst  no  weak 
verb  ever  becomes  strong. 

2.  All  the  strong  verbs  are  of  Saxon  origin.     None 
are  classical. 


ON  CONJUGATION.  237 

3.  The  greater  number  of  them  are  strong  throughout 
the  Gothic  tongues. 

4.  No  new  word  is  ever,  upon  its  importation,  inflected 
according  to  the  strong  conjugation.     It  is  always  weak. 
As  nearly  as  A.  D.  1085,  the  French  word  adouber  =  to 
dub,  was  introduced  into  English.     Its  prseterite  was  dub- 
bade. 

5.  All  derived  words  are  inflected  weak.     The  intran- 
sitive forms  drink  and  lie,  are  strong  ;  the  transitive  forms 
drench  and  lay,  are  weak. 

This  shows  that  the  division  of  verbs  into  weak  and 
strong  is  a  truly  natural  one. 


238  DEFECTIVENESS   AND   IBREGULAKITY. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

DEFECTTVENESS    AND    IRREGULARITY. 

§  323.  THE  distinction  between  irregularity  and  de- 
fectiveness  has  been  foreshadowed.  It  is  now  more  ur- 
gently insisted  on.  »-o  ,>v^S"" 

The  words  that  have  hitherto  served  as  illustrations 
are  the  personal  pronouns  /  or  me,  the  adjectives  good, 
better,  and  best. 

The  view  of  these  words  was  as  follows ;  viz.,  that 
none  of  them  were  irregular,  but  that  they  were  all  de- 
fective. Me  wanted  the  nominative,  /  the  oblique  cases. 
Good  was  without  a  comparative,  better  and  best  had  no 
positive  degree. 

Now  me  and  better  may  be  said  to  make  good  the  de- 
fectiveness  of  /  and  good  ;  and  /  and  good  may  be  said 
to  replace  the  forms  wanting  in  me  and  better.  This  gives 
us  the  principle  of  compensation.  To  introduce  a  new 
term,  /  and  me,  good  and  better,  may  be  said  to  be  com- 
plementary to  each  other. 

What  applies  to  nouns  applies  to  verbs  also.  Go  and 
went  are  not  irregularities.  Go  is  defective  in  the  past 
tense.  Went  is  without  a  present.  The  two  words,  how- 
ever, compensate  their  mutual  deficiencies,  and  are  com- 
plementary to  each  other. 

The  distinction  between  defectiveness  and  irregularity, 
is  the  first  instrument  of  criticism  for  coming  to  true 


DEFECTTVENESS  AND   IRREGULARITY.  239 

views  concerning  the  proportion  of  the  regular  and  irreg- 
ular verbs. 

§  324.  The  second  instrument  of  criticism  in  deter- 
mining the  irregular  verbs,  is  the  meaning  that  we  attach 
to  the  term. 

It  is  very  evident  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  gram- 
marian to  raise  the  number  of  etymological  irregularities 
to  any  amount,  by  narrowing  the  definition  of  the  word 
irregular  ;  in  other  words,  by  framing  an  exclusive  rule. 
The  current  rule  of  the  common  grammarians  that  the 
preterite  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  -t,  or  -d,  or  -ed  ;  a 
position  sufficiently  exclusive  ;  since  it  proscribes  not  only 
the  whole  class  of  strong  verbs,  but  also  words  like  bent 
and  sent,  where  -t  exists,  but  where  it  does  not  exist  as 
an  addition.  The  regular  forms,  it  may  be  said,  should 
be  bended  and  sended. 

Exclusive,  however,  as  the  rule  in  question  is,  it  is 
plain  that  it  might  be  made  more  so.  The  regular  forms 
might,  by  the  fiat  of  a  rule,  be  restricted  to  those  in  -d. 
In  this  case  words  like  wept  and  burnt  would  be  added  to 
the  already  numerous  list  of  irregulars. 

Finally,  a  further  limitation  might  be  made,  by  laying 
down  as  a  rule  that  no  word  was  regular,  unless  it  ended 
in  -ed. 

§  325.  Thus  much  concerning  the  modes  of  making 
rules  exclusive,  and,  consequently,  of  raising  the  amount  of 
irregularities.  This  is  the  last  art  that  the  philosophic 
grammarian  is  ambitious  of  acquiring.  True  etymology 
reduces  irregularity ;  and  that  by  making  the  rules  of 
grammar,  not  exclusive,  but  general.  The  quantum  of 
irregularity  is  in  the  inverse  proportion  to  the  generality 
of  our  rules.  In  language  itself  there  is  no  irregularity. 
The  word  itself  is  only  another  name  for  our  ignorance  of 
the  processes  that  change  words ;  and,  as  irregularity 


240  DEFECTIVENESS  AND  IRREGULARITY. 

is  in  the  direct  proportion  to  the  exclusiveness  of 
our  rules,  the  exclusiveness  of  our  rules  is  in  the 
direct  proportion  to  our  ignorance  of  etymological  pro- 
cesses. 

§  326.  The  explanation  of  some  fresh  terms  will  lead 
us  towards  the  definition  of  the  word  irregular. 

Vital  and  obsolete  processes. — The  word  moved  is 
formed  from  move,  by  the  addition  of  -d.  The  addition 
of  -d  is  the  process  by  which  the  present  form  is  rendered 
praeterite.  The  word  fell  is  formed  from  fall,  by  chang- 
ing a  into  e.  The  change  of  vowel  is  the  process  by 
which  the  present  form  is  rendered  praeterite.  Of  the  two 
processes  the  result  is  the  same.  In  what  respect  do 
they  differ  ? 

For  the  sake  of  illustration,  let  a  new  word  be  intro- 
duced into  the  language.  Let  a  praeterite  tense  of  it 
be  formed.  This  praeterite  would  be  formed,  not  by 
changing  the  vowel,  but  by  adding  -d.  No  new  verb 
ever  takes  a  strong  praeterite.  The  like  takes  place 
with  nouns.  No  new  substantive  would  form  its  plural, 
like  oxen  or  geese,  by  adding  -en,  or  by  changing  the 
vowel.  It  would  rather,  like  fathers  and  horses,  add  the 
lene  sibilant. 

Now,  the  processes  that  change  fall,  ox  and  goose  in- 
to fell,  oxen,  and  geese,  inasmuch  as  they  cease  to  oper- 
ate on  the  language  in  its  present  stage,  are  obsolete  pro- 
cesses ;  whilst  those  that  change  move  into  moved,  and 
horse  into  horses,  operating  on  the  language  in  its  present 
stage,  are  vital  processes. 

A  definition  of  the  word  irregular  might  be  so  framed 
as  to  include  all  words  whose  forms  could  not  be  accounted 
for  by  the  vital  processes.  Such  a  definition  would  make 
all  the  strong  verbs  irregular. 

The  very  fact  of  so  natural  a  class  as  that  of  the  strong 


DEFECTIVENESS  AND   IEEEGULAEITY,  241 

verbs  being  reduced  to  the  condition  of  irregulars,  inva- 
lidates such  a  definition  as  this. 

§  327.  Processes  of  necessity  as  opposed  to  processes 
of  habit. — The  combinations  -pd,  -fd,  -kd,  -sd,  and  some 
others,  are  unpronounceable.  Hence  words  like  step, 
quaff,  back,  kiss,  &c.,  take  after  them  the  sound  of  -t  : 
stept,  quafft,  &c.,  being  their  prseterites,  instead  of  stepd, 
quaff d.  Here  the  change  from  -d  to  -t  is  a  matter  of 
necessity.  It  is  not  so  with  words  like  weep,  and  wept, 
<fec.  Here  the  change  of  vowel  is  not  necessary.  Weept 
might  have  been  said  if  the  habit  of  the  language  had 
permitted. 

A  definition  of  the  word  irregular  might  be  so  framed 
as  to  include  all  words  whose  natural  form  was  modified 
by  any  euphonic  process  whatever.  In  this  case  stept 
(modified  by  a  process  of  necessity),  and  wept  (modified 
by  a  process  of  habit),  would  be  equally  irregular. 

A  less  limited  definition  might  account  words  regular 
as  long  as  the  process  by  which  they  are  deflected  from 
their  natural  form  was  a  process  of  necessity.  Those, 
however,  which  were  modified  by  a  process  of  habit  it 
would  class  with  the  irregulars. 

Definitions  thus  limited  arise  from  ignorance  of  eu- 
phonic processes,  or  rather  from  an  ignorance  of  the 
generality  of  their  operation. 

§  328.  Ordinary  processes  as  opposed  to  extraordi- 
nary processes. — The  whole  scheme  of  language  is  ana- 
logical. A  new  word  introduced  into  a  language  takes 
the  forms  of  its  cases  or  tenses,  &c.,  from  the  forms  of 
the  cases  or  tenses,  &c.,  of  the  old  words.  The  analogy  is 
extended.  Now  few  forms  (if  any)  are  so  unique  as  not 
to  have  some  others  corresponding  with  them ;  and  few 
processes  of  change  are  so  -unique  as  not  to  affect  more 
words  than  one.  The  forms  wept,  and  slept,  correspond 
12 


242  DEFECTIVES  ESS   AND   IRREGULARITY. 

with  each  other.  They  are  brought  about  by  the  same 
process  :  viz.,  by  the  shortening  of  the  vowel  in  weep  and 
sleep.  The  analogy  of  weep  is  extended  to  sleep,  and  vice 
versa.  Changing  our  expression,  a  common  influence 
affects  both  words.  The  alteration  itself  is  the  leading  fact. 
The  extent  of  its  influence  is  an  instrument  of  classifica- 
tion. When  processes  affect  a  considerable  number  of 
words,  they  may  be  called  ordinary  processes  ;  as  opposed 
to  extraordinary  processes,  which  affect  one  or  few  words. 

When  a  word  stands  by  itself,  with  no  other  corre- 
sponding to  it,  we  confess  our  ignorance,  and  say  that  it  is 
affected  by  an  extraordinary  process,  by  a  process  peculiar 
to  itself,  or  by  a  process  to  which  we  know  nothing 
similar. 

A  definition  of  the  word  irregular  might  be  so  framed 
as  to  include  all  words  affected  by  extraordinary  pro- 
cesses ;  the  rest  being  considered  regular. 

§  329.  Positive  processes  as  opposed  to  ambiguous 
processes. — The  words  wept  and  slept  are  similarly 
affected.  Each  is  changed  from  weep  and  sleep  respect- 
ively ;  and  we  know  that  the  process  which  affects  the  one 
is  the  process  that  affects  the  other  also.  Here  there  is 
a  positive  process. 

Reference  is  now  made  to  words  of  a  different  sort. 
The  nature  of  the  word  worse  has  been  explained  in  the 
Chapter  on  the  Comparative  Degree.  There  the  form  is 
accounted  for  in  two  ways,  of  which  only  one  can  be  the 
true  one.  Of  the  two  processes,  each  might  equally 
have  brought  about  the  present  form.  Which  of  the 
two  it  was,  we  are  unable  to  say.  Here  the  process  is 
ambiguous. 

A  definition  of  the  word  irregular  might  be  so  framed 
as  to  include  all  words  affected  by  ambiguous  processes. 

§  330.  Normal  processes  as  opposed  to  processes  of 


DEFECTIVENESS  AND  IRREGULARITY.  243 

confusion. — Let  a  certain  word  come  under  class  A.  Let 
all  words  under  class  A  be  similarly  affected.  Let  a 
given  word  come  under  class  A.  This  word  will  be 
affected  even  as  the  rest  of  class  A  is  affected.  The  pro- 
cess affecting,  and  the  change  resulting,  will  be  normal, 
regular,  or  analogical. 

Let,  however,  a  word,  instead  of  really  coming  under 
class  A,  only  appear  to  do  so.  Let  it  be  dealt  with 
accordingly.  The  analogy  then  is  a  false  one.  The 
principle  of  imitation  is  a  wrong  one.  The  process  affect- 
ing is  a  process  of  confusion. 

Examples  of  this  (a  few  amongst  many)  are  words 
like  songstress,  theirs,  minded,  where  the  words  songstr-, 
their-,  mind-,  are  dealt  with  as  roots,  which  they  are 
not.  £'3- .  6  ,  .230 .  fy  f 

Ambiguous  processes,  extraordinary  processes,  pro- 
cesses of  confusion — each,  or  all  of  these,  are  legitimate 
reasons  for  calling  words  irregular.  The  practice  of 
etymologists  will  determine  what  definition  is  most  con- 
venient. 

With  extraordinary  processes  we  know  nothing  about 
the  word.  With  ambiguous  processes  we  are  unable  to 
make  a  choice.  With  processes  of  confusion  we  see  the 
analogy,  but,  at  the  same  time,  see  that  it  is  a  false  one. 

§  331.  Could: — With  all  persons  who  pronounce  the  / 
this  word  is  truly  irregular.  The  Anglo-Saxon  form  is 
cufte.  The  I  is  inserted  by  a  process  of  confusion. 

Can,  cunne,  canst,  cunnon,  cunnan,  cufte,  cufton,  cu^> 
— such  are  the  remaining  forms  in  Anglo-Saxon.  None 
of  them  account  for  the  /,  The  presence  of  the  I  makes 
the  word  could  irregular.  No  reference  to  the  allied 
languages  accounts  for  it. 

Notwithstanding  this,  the  presence  of  the  I  is  ac- 
counted for.  In  would  and  should  the  I  has  a  proper 


244  DEFECTIVESESS   AND   IRREGULARITY. 

place.  It  is  part  of  the  original  words>  will  and  shall. 
A  false  analogy  looked  upon  could  in  the  same  light. 
Hence  a  true  irregularity  ;  provided  that  the  L  be  pro- 
nounced. 

The  L.  however,  is  pronounced  by  few,  and  that  only 
in  pursuance  with  the  spelling.  This  reduces  the  word 
could  to  an  irregularity,  not  of  language,  but  only  of 
orthography. 

That  the  mere  ejection  of  the  -n  in  can,  and  that  the 
mere  lengthening  of  the  vowel,  are  not  irregularities,  we 
learn  from  a  knowledge  of  the  processes  that  convert  the 
Greek  oSo^ro?  (odontos)  into  oSouj  (odows). 

§  332.  The  verb  quoth  is  truly  defective.  It  is  found 
in  only  one  tense,  one  number,  and  one  person.  It  is  the 
third  person  singular  of  the  prseterite  tense.  It  has  the 
further  peculiarity  of  preceding  its  pronoun.  Instead  of 
saying  he  quoth,  we  say  quoth  he.  In  Anglo-Saxon,  how- 
ever, it  was  not  defective.  It  was  found  in  the  other 
tenses,  in  the  other  number,  and  in  other  moods.  Ic 
cwefte  }>u  wvyst,  he  cwy¥>  ;  ic  cwceft,  ]>u  cwafoe,  he 
cwce¥>,  we  cwcedon,  ge  cwcedon,  hi  cwcedon ;  imperative, 
cwe?>  ;  participle,  gecweden.  In  the  Scandinavian  it  is 
current  in  all  its  forms.  There,  however,  it  means,  not  to 
speak  but  to  sing.  As  far  as  its  conjugation  goes,  it  is 
strong.  As  far  as  its  class  goes,  it  follows  the  form  of 
speak,  spoke.  Like  speak,  its  Anglo-Saxon  form  is  in  ce, 
as  cwce^>.  Like  one  of  the  forms  of  speak,  its  English 
form  is  in  o,  as  quoth,  spoke. 

§  333.  The  principle  that  gives  us  the  truest  views  of 
the  structure  of  language  is  that  which  considers  no 
word  irregular  unless  it  be  affected  by  either  an  ambi- 
guous process,  or  by  a  process  of  confusion.  The  words 
affected  by  extraordinary  processes  form  a  provisional 
class,  which  a  future  increase  of  our  etymological  know- 


DEFECTIVENESS   AND   IRREGULARITY.  245 

ledge  may  show  to  be  regular.  Worse  and  could  are  the 
fairest  specimens  of  our  irregulars.  Yet  even  could 
is  only  an  irregularity  in  the  written  language.  The 
printer  makes  it,  and  the  printer  can  take  it  away. 
Hence  the  class,  instead  of  filling  pages,  is  exceedingly 
limited. 


246  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

THE    IMPERSONAL    VERBS. 

§  334.  IN  me-seems,  and  me-thinks,  the  me  is  dative 
rather  than  accusative,  and  =  7mVw  and  pot,  rather  than 
trie  and  yLte. 

§  335.  In  me-listeth,  the  me  is  accusative  rather  than 
dative,  and  =  me  and  /te  rather  than  mihi  and  /iot. 

For  the  explanation  of  this  difference  see  Syntax, 
Chapter  XXI. 


THE   VERB   SUBSTANTIVE.  247 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

THE    VERB    SUBSTANTIVE. 

§  336.  THE  verb  substantive-  is  generally  dealt  with 
as  an  irregular  verb.  This  is  inaccurate.  The  true 
notion  is  that  the  idea  of  being  or  existing  is  expressed 
by  four  different  verbs,  each  of  which  is  defective  in 
some  of  its  parts.  The  parts,  however,  that  are  want- 
ing in  one  verb,  are  made  up  by  the  inflections  of  one  of 
the  others.  There  is,  for  example,  no  prseterite  of  the 
verb  am,  and  no  present  of  the  verb  was.  The  absence, 
however,  of  the  present  form  of  was  is  made  up  by  the 
word  am,  and  the  absence  of  the  praeterite  form  of  am  is 
made  up  by  the  word  was. 

§  337.  Was  is  defective,  except  in  the  praeterite 
tense,  where  it  is  found  both  in  the  indicative  and  con- 
junctive. 


Indicative. 
Sing.  Plur. 

1.  Was  Were. 

2.  Wast  Were. 

3.  Was  Were. 


Conjunctive. 
Sing.  Plur. 

1.  Were  Were. 

2.  Wert  Were. 

3.  Were  Were. 


In  the  older  stages  of  the  Gothic  languages  the  word 
had  both  a  full  conjugation  and  a  regular  one.  In 
Anglo-Saxon  it  had  an  infinitive,  a  participle  present, 
and  a  participle  past.  In  Moeso-Grothic  it  was  inflected 
throughout  with  -s ;  as  visa,  vas,  vesum,  visans.  In 
that  language  it  has  the  power  of  the  Latin  maneo  —  to 


248  THE   VERB   SUBSTANTIVE. 

remain.  The  r  first  appears  in  the  Old  High  German ; 
wisu,  was,  wdrunite,  wesaner.  In  Norse  the  5  entirely 
disappears,  and  the  word  is  inflected  with  r  throughout ; 
vera,  var,  vorum.  &c. 

§  338.  Be  is  inflected  in  Anglo-Saxon  throughout  the 
present  tense,  both  indicative  and  subjunctive.  It  is 
found  also  as  an  infinitive,  beon  ;  as  a  gerund,  to  beonnc  ; 
and  as  a  participle,  beonde ;  in  the  present  English  its 
inflection  is  as  follows  : 


Present. 


Conjunctive. 
Sing.  Plur. 


Imperative. 
Sing.  Plur. 


Be  Be. 

Be  Be 

Be  Be 

Injln.  To  be.  Pres.  P.  Being.  Past.  Part.  Been. 

§  339.  The  line  in  Milton  beginning  If  thou  beest  he 
— (P.  L.  b.  ii.)3  leads  to  the  notion  that  the  antiquated 
form  beest  is  not  indicative,  but  conjunctive.  Such, 
however,  is  not  the  case  :  byst  in  Anglo-Saxon  is  in- 
dicative, the  conjunctive  form  being  be6.  And  every 
thing  that  pretty  bin  (Cymbeline). — Here  the  word  bin  is 
the  conjunctive  plural,  in  Anglo-Saxon  be6n  ;  so  that  the 
words  every  thing  are  to  be  considered  equivalent  to  the 
plural  form  all  things.  The  phrase  in  Latin  would  stand 
thus,  quotquot  pulchra  sint  ;  in  Greek,  thus,  a  av  /cd\a  17. 
The  indicative  plural  is,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  not  betin,  but 
be6?>  and  be6. 

§  340.  In  the  "Deutsche  Grammatik"  it  is  stated  that 
the  Anglo-Saxon  forms  bed,  bist,  bi¥>,  beofo,  or  beti,  have 
not  a  present  but  a  future  sense  ;  that  whilst  am  means 
1  am,  be6  means  /  shall  be  ;  and  that  in  the  older  lan- 
guages it  is  only  where  the  form  am  is  not  found  that  be 
has  the  power  of  a  present  form.  The  same  root  occurs 


THE   VERB   SUBSTANTIVE.  249 

in  the  Slavonic  and  Lithuania  tongues  with  the  same 
power  ;  as,  esmi  =  I  am  ;  busu  =  I  shall  be,  Lithuanic. 
Esmu  =  I  am  ;  buhshu  =  I  shall  be,  Livonic. — Jesm  = 
I  am  ;  budu  =  I  shall  be,  Slavonic. —  Gsem  =  I  am  ; 
budu  =  I  shall  be,  Bohemian.  This,  however,  proves, 
not  that  there  is  in  Anglo-Saxon  a  future  tense,  but  that 
the  word  be6  has  a  future  sense.  There  is  no  fresh  tense 
where  there  is  no  fresh  form. 

.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  future  power  of 
betin  in  Anglo-Saxon  : — "  Hi  ne  betfb  na  cilde,  so¥>lice, 
on  domesdcege,  ac  bed$  swa  micele  menn  swa  swa  hi, 
migton  be6n  gif  hi  full  weoxon  on  gewunlicre- ylde" — 
JElfric's  Homilies.  "  They  will  not  be  children,  forsooth, 
on  Domesday,  but  will  be  as  much  (so  muckle)  men  as  they 
might  be  if  they  were  full  grown  (waxen)  in  customary 
age." 

§  341.  Now,  if  we  consider  the  word  be6n  like  the 
word  weor^ban  (see  §  343)  to  mean  not  so  much  to  be  as  to 
become,  we  get  an  element  of  the  idea  of  futurity.  Things 
which  are  becoming  anything  have  yet  something  further 
to  either  do  or  suffer.  Again,  from  the  idea  of  futurity  we 
get  the  idea  of  contingency,  and  this  explains  the  sub- 
junctive power  of  be.  In  English  we  often  say  may  for 
shall,  and  the  same  was  done  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

§  342.  Am. — Of  this  form  it  should  be  stated  that  the 
letter  -m  is  no  part  of  the  original  word.  It  is  the  sign  of 
the  first  person,  just  as  it  is  in  Greek,  and  several  other 
languages. 

It  should  also  be  stated,  that  although  the  fact  be 
obscured,  and  although  the  changes  be  insufficiently 
accounted  for,  the  forms  am,  art,  are,  and  is,  are  not, 
like  am  and  was,  parts  of  different  words,  but  forms  of 
one  and  the  same  word ;  in  other  terms,  that,  although 
between  am  and  be  there  is  no  etymological  connexion, 


250  THE  VEEB  SUBSTANTIVE. 

there  is  one  between  am  and  is.     This  we  collect  from  the 
comparison  of  the  Indo-European  languages. 

1.  2.  3. 

Sanskrit         ....  Asmi  Asi  Asti. 

Zend  ....  Ahmi  Asi  Ashti. 

Greek Elpl  Efr  'E<rrL    j 

Latin Sum  Es  Est. 

Lithuania       .     ;  .        .         .  Esmi  Essi  Esti. 

Old  Slavonic      .        .         .  Yesmy  Yesi  Yesty. 

Moeso-Gothic .        .        .        .  Im  Is  1st, 

Old  Saxon          ...  —  *  Is  1st. 

Anglo-Saxon ....  Eom  Eart  Is. 

Icelandic    ....  Em  Ert  Er. 

English Am  Art  Is. 

§  343.  Worth.— In  the  following  lines  of  Scott,  the 
word  worth=  is,  and  is  a  fragment  of  the  regular  Anglo- 
Saxon  verb  weor¥>an  =  to  be,  or  to  became;  German 
werden. 

Woe  worth  the  chase,  woe  worth  the  day, 
That  cost  thy  life,  my  gallant  grey. 

Lady  of  the  Lake. 


*  Found  rarely;  bist  being  the   current  form. — "Deutsche   Gram- 
matik,"  i.  894. 


SDUl-**^"/  , 

;  C*-' 


THE   PRESENT   PARTICIPLE.  251 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

THE    PRESENT   PARTICIPLE. 

§  344.  THE  present  participle,  called  also  the  active 
participle  and  the  participle  in  -ing,  is  formed  from  the 
original  word  by  adding  -ing ;  as,  move,  moving.  In 
the  older  languages  the  termination  was  more  marked, 
being  -nd.  Like  the  Latin  participle  in  -ns,  it  was 
originally  declined.  The  Moeso-Gothic  and  Old  High 
German  forms  are  habands  and  hapenter  =  having,  re- 
spectively. The  -s  in  the  one  language,  and  the  -£r  in 
the  other,  are  the  signs  of  the  case  and  gender.  In  the 
Old  Saxon  and  Anglo-Saxon  the  forms  are  -and  and 
-ande ;  as  bindand,  bindande  =  binding.  In  all  the 
Norse  languages,  ancient  and  modern,  the  -d  is  preserved. 
So  it  is  in  the  Old  Lowland  Scotch,  and  in  many  of  the 
modern  provincial  dialects  of  England,  where  strikand, 
goand,  is  said  for  striking,  going.  In  Staffordshire, 
where  the  -ing  is  pronounced  -ingg,  there  is  a  fuller 
sound  than  that  of  the  current  English.  In  Old  English 
the  form  in  -nd  is  predominant,  in  Middle  English  the 
use  fluctuates,  and  in  New  English  the  termination  -ing  is 
universal.  In  the  Scotch  of  the  modern  writers  we  find 
the  form  -in. 

The  rising  sun  o'er  Galston  muirs 

Wi'  glorious  b'ght  was  glintin'; 
The  hares  were  hirplin'  down  the  furs, 

The  lav'rocks  they  were  chantin'. 

BUKNS'  Holy  Fair. 


252  THE   PRESENT   PARTICIPLE. 

§  345.  It  has  often  been  remarked  that  the  participle 
is  used  in  many  languages  as  a  substantive.  This  is  true 
in  Greek, 

'O  irpd(T<T<Dv=the  actor,  when  a  male. 
'H  Trpaffffovffa=the  actor,  "when  a  female. 
To  irpa.TTov=the  active  principle  of  a  thing. 

But  it  is  also  stated,  that,  in  the  English  language, 
the  participle  is  used  as  a  substantive  in  a  greater  degree 
than  elsewhere,  and  that  it  is  used  in  several  cases  and  in 
both  numbers,  e.  g., 

Rising  early  is  healthy, 
There  is  health  in  rising  early. 
This  is  the  advantage  of  rising  early. 
The  risings  in  the  North,  <fec. 

Some  acute  remarks  of  Mr.  R.  Taylor,  in  the  Intro- 
duction to  his  edition  of  Tooke's  "  Diversions  of  Purley," 
modify  this  view.  According  to  these,  the  -ing"  in 
words  like  rising  is  not  the  -ing  of  the  present  partici- 
ple ;  neither  has  it  originated  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  -end. 
It  is  rather  the  -ing  in  words  like  morning  ;  which  is 
anything  but  a  participle  of  the  non-existent  verb  morn, 
and  which  has  originated  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  substan- 
tival termination  -ung.  Upon  this  Rask  writes  as  fol- 
lows : — "  Gitsung.  gewilnung=  desire  ;  swutelung  =  ma- 
nifestation ;  d(znsun%  =  a  cleansing  ;  sceawung=view, 
contemplation;  eor?>-beofu?ig  =  an  earthquake  ;  gesom- 
nung=an  assembly.  This  termination  is  chiefly  used 
in, forming  substantives  from  verbs  of  the  first  class  in 
-ian  ;  as  halgung  =  consecration,  from  halgian=to  con- 
secrate. These  verbs  are  all  feminine." — "Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar,"  p.  107. 

Now,  whatever  may  be  the  theory  of  the  origin  of 
the  termination  -ing  in  old  phrases  like  rising  early  is 
12* 


THE   PRESENT   PARTICIPLE.  253 

healthy,  it  cannot  apply  to  expressions  of  recent  introduc- 
tion. Here  the  direct  origin  in  -ung  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. 

The  view,  then,  that  remains  to  be  taken  of  the  forms 
in  question  is  this  : 

1.  That  the  older  forms  in  -ing  are  substantival  in 
origin,  and  =  the  Anglo-Saxon  -ung. 

"2.  That  the  latter  ones  are  irregularly  participial,  and 
have  been  formed  on  a  false  analogy. 


254  THE   PAST   PARTICIPLE. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE    PAST    PARTICIPLE. 

§  346.  A.  THE  participle  in  -EN. — In  the  Anglo-Sax- 
on this  participle  was  declined  like  the  adjectives.  Like 
the  adjectives,  it  is.  in  the  present  English,  undeclined. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  it  always  ended  in  -en,  as  sungen, 
funden,  bunden.  In  English  this  -en  is  often  wanting, 
as  found,  bound  ;  the  word  bounden  being  antiquated. 

Words  where  the  -en  is  wanting  may  be  viewed  in  two 
lights ;  1,  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  participles  that 
have  lost  their  termination  ;  2,  they  may  be  considered  as 
praeterites  with  a  participial  sense. 

§  347.  Drank,  drunk,  drunken. — With  all  words 
wherein  the  vowel  of  the  plural  differs  from  that  of  the 
singular,  the  participle  takes  the  plural  form.  To  say  / 
have  drunk,  is  to  use  an  ambiguous  expression ;  since 
drunk  may  be  either  a  participle  minus  its  termination, 
or  a  prseterite  with  a  participial  sense.  To  say  /  have 
drank,  is  to  use  a  praeterite  for  a  participle.  To  say  1 
have  drunken,  is  to  use  an  unexceptional  form. 

In  all  words  with  a  double  form,  as  spake  and  spoke, 
brake  and  broke,  clave  and  clove,  the  participle  follows  the 
form  in  o,  as  spoken,  broken,  cloven.  Spaken,  broken, 
claveji  are  impossible  forms.  There  are  degrees  in  laxity 
of  language,  and  to  say  the  spear  is  broke  is  better  than 
to  say  the  spear  is  brake. 


THE   PAST   PARTICIPLE.  255 

§  348.  As  a  general  rule,  we  find  the  participle  in  -en 
wherever  the  praeterite  is  strong ;  indeed,  the  participle 
in  -en  may  be  called  the  strong  participle,  or  the  participle 
of  the  strong  conjugation.  Still  the  two  forms  do  not 
always  coincide.  In  mow,  mowed,  mown,  sow,  sowed, 
sown;  and  several  other  words,  we  find  the  participle 
strong,  and  the  praeterite  weak.  I  remember  no  instances 
of  the  converse.  .This  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that 
the  praeterite  has  a  greater  tendency  to  pass  from  strong 
to  weak  than  the  participle. 

§  349.  In  the  Latin  language  the  change  from  5  to  r, 
and  vice  versa,  is  very  common.  We  have  the  double 
forms  arbor  and  arbos,  honor  and  honos,  &c.  Of  this 
change  we  have  a  few  specimens  in  English.  The  words 
rear  and  raise,  as  compared  with  each  other,  are 
examples.  In  Anglo-Saxon  a  few  words  undergo  a 
similar  change  in  the  plural  number  of  the  strong  prse- 
terites. 

Ceose,  /  choose  ;  ceas,  /  chose  ;  curon,  we  chose  ;  gecoren,  chosen. 
Forleose,  /  lose  ;  forleas,  I  lost ;  forluron,  we  lost ;  forloren,  lost. 
Hreose,  I  rush ;  hreas,  I  rushed ;  hruron,  we  rushed;  gehroren,  rushed. 

This  accounts  for  the  participial  form  forlorn,  or  lostj 
in  New  High  German  verloren.  In  Milton's  lines, 

.  /*" 

the  piercing  ail- 
Burns  frore,  and  cold  performs  the  effect  of  fire, 

Paradise  Lost,  b.  ii, 

we  have  a  form  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  participle  gefroren 
=frozen. 

§  350.  B.  The  participle  in  -D,  -T,  or  -ED. — In  the 
Anglo-Saxon  this  participle  was  declined  like  the  adjec- 
tive. Like  the  adjective,  it  is,  in  the  present  English, 
undeclined. 


256  THE  PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  it  differed  in  form  from  the  praeterite, 
inasmuch  as  it  ended  in  -ed,  or  -t,  whereas  the  preterite 
ended  in  -ode.  -de,  or  -te  :  as,  lufode,  bcernde,  dypte,  pre- 
terites ;  gelufod,  bcerned,  dypt,  participles. 

As  the  ejection  of  the  e  (in  one  case  final  in  the  other 
not)  reduces  words  like  bcerned  and  bcernde  to  the  same 
form,  it  is  easy  to  account  for  the  present  identity  of  form 
between  the  weak  prseterites  and  the  participles  in  -d : 
e.  g.,  I  moved,  I  have  moved,  &.c. 

§  351.  The  prefix  Y. — In  the  older  writers,  and  in 
works  written,  like  Thomson's  "  Castle  of  Indolence,"  in 
imitation  of  them,  we  find  prefixed  to  the  praeterite  parti- 
ciple the  letter  y-,  as,  yclept  =  called :  yclad  =  clothed  : 
ydrad  =  dreaded. 

The  following  are  the  chief  facts  and  the  current  opin- 
ion concerning  this  prefix  : — 

1.  It  has  grown  out  of  the  fuller  forms  ge- :  Anglo- 
Saxon,  ge- :    Old  Saxon,  gi- :    Moeso-Gothic,  ga- :    Old 
High  German,  ka-,  cha-,  ga-,  ki-,  gi-. 

2.  It  occurs  in  each  and  all  of  the  Germanic  languages 
of  the  Gothic  stock. 

3.  It  occurs,  with  a  few  fragmentary   exceptions,   in 
none  of  the  Scandinavian  languages  of  the  Gothic  stock. 

4.  In  Anglo-Saxon  it  occasionally  indicates  a  difference 
of  sense  ;  as,  haten  =  called,  ge-ha.tQn=  promised;  boren 
=  borne,  g-e-boren  =  born. 

5.  It  occurs  in  nouns  as  well  as  verbs. 

6.  Its  power,  in  the  case  of  nouns,  is  generally  some 
idea  of  association,  or  collection. — Moeso-Gothic,  sin}>s  = 
a  journey,  ga-siri^a  =  a  companion  ;  Old  High  German, 
per c  =  hill;  ki-perki  (gebirge)  =  a  range  of  hills. 

7.  But  it  has  also  a  frequentative  power;  a  frequenta- 
tive power,  which  is,  in  all  probability,  secondary  to  its 
collective  power ;  since  things  which  recur  frequently  recur 


Anglo-Saxon. 

English. 

Anglo-Saxon. 

Feax 

Hair 

G^-feax 

Heorte 

Heart 

#e-heort 

Stence 

Odour 

Ge-stence 

THE   PAST   PARTICIPLE.  257 

with  a  tendency  to  collection  or  association ;  Middle  High 
German,  ge-rassel  =  rustling  ;  ge-rumpel — c-rumple. 

8.  And  it  has  also  the  power  of  expressing  the  pos- 
session of  a  quality. 

Latin. 
Coniatus. 
Cordatus. 
Odorus. 

This  power  is  also  a  collective,  since  every  quality  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  object  that  possesses  it ;  a  sea  with  waves 
=  a  wavy  sea. 

9.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  ga-,  ki~,  or  gi-,  Goth- 
ic, is  the  cum  of  Latin  languages.     Such,   at  least,  is 
Grimm's  view,  as  given  in  the  "  Deutsche  Grammatik,"  i. 
1016. 

Concerning  this,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  deficient  in 
an  essential  point.  It  does  not  show  how  the  participle 
past  is  collective.  Undoubtedly  it  may  be  said  that  every 
such  participle  is  in  the  condition  of  words  like  ge-feax 
and  ge-heort  ;  i.  e.,  that  they  imply  an  association  between 
the  object  and  the  action  or  state.  But  this  does  not 
seem  to  be  Grimm's  view ;  he  rather  suggests  that  the  ge- 
may  have  been  a  prefix  to  verbs  in  general,  originally  at- 
tached to  all  their  forms,  but  finally  abandoned  every- 
where, except  in  the  case  of  the  participle. 

The  theory  of  this  prefix  has  yet  to  assume  a  satisfac- 
tory form. 


258  COMPOSITION, 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

COMPOSITION. 

§  352.  IN  the  following  words,  amongst  many  others, 
we  have  palpable  and  indubitable  specimens  of  composi- 
tion— day-star,  vine-yard,  sun-beam,  apple-tree,  ship-load, 
silver-smith,  &c.  The  words  palpable  and  indubitable 
have  been  used,  because  in  many  cases,  as  will  be  seen 
hereafter,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  word  be  a 
true  compound  or  not. 

§  353.  Now,  in  each  of  the  compounds  quoted  above, 
it  may  be  seen  that  it  is  the  second  word  which  is  quali- 
fied, or  defined,  by  the  first,  and  that  it  is  not  the  first 
which  is  qualified,  or  defined,  by  the  second.  Of  yards, 
beams,  trees,  loads,  smiths,  there  may  be  many  sorts,  and. 
in  order  to  determine  what  particul<fr  sort  of  yard,  beam, 
tree,  load,  or  smith,  may  be  meant,  the  words  vine,  sun, 
apple,  ship,  and  silver,  are  prefixed.  In  compound 
words  it  is  the  first  term  that  defines  or  particularises  the 
second. 

§  354.  That  the  idea  given  by  the  word  apple-tree 
is  not  referable  to  the  words  apple  and  tree,  irrespective 
of  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  may  be  seen  by  re- 
versing the  position  of  them.  The  word  tree-apple, 
although  not  existing  in  the  language,  is  as  correct  a 
word  as  thorn-apple.  In  tree-apple,  the  particular  sort 
of  apple  meant  is  denoted  by  the  word  tree,  and  if  there 


COMPOSITION.  259 

were  in  our  gardens  various  sorts  of  plants  called  apples, 
of  which  some  grew  along  the  ground  and  others  upon 
trees,  such  a  word  as  tree-apple  would  be  required  in 
order  to  be  opposed  to  earth-apple,  or  ground-apple,  or 
some  word  of  the  kind. 

In  the  compound  words  tree-apple  and  apple-tree,  we 
have  the  same  elements  differently  arranged.  However, 
as  the  word  tree-apple  is  not  current  in  the  language, 
the  class  of  compounds  indicated  by  it  may  seem  to 
be  merely  imaginary.  Nothing  is  farther  from  being 
the  case.  A  tree-rose  is  a  rose  of  a  particular  sort. 
The  generality  of  roses  being  on  shrubs,  this  grows  on  a 
tree.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  this  fact,  and  this 
particular  character  is  expressed  by  the  word  tree 
prefixed.  A  rose-tree  is  a  tree  of  a  particular  sort, 
distinguished  from  apple-trees,  and  trees  in  general  (in 
other  words,  particularised  or  defined),  by  the  word  tree 
prefixed. 

A  ground-nut  is  a  nut  particularised  by  growing  in 
the  ground.  A  nut-ground  is  a  ground  particularised  by 
producing  nuts. 

A  finger-ring,  as  distinguished  from  an  ear-ring,  and 
from  rings  in  general  (and  so  particularised),  is  a  ring 
for  the  finger.  A  ring-finger,  as  distinguished  fromybre- 
fingers,  and  from  fingers  in  general  (and  so  particular- 
ised), is  a  finger  whereon  rings  are  worn. 

§  355.  At  times  this  rule  seems  to  be  violated.  The 
words  spit-fire  and  dare-devil  seem  exceptions  to  it. 
At  the  first  glance  it  seems,  in  the  case  of  a  spit-fire, 
that  what  he  (or  she)  spits  is  fire  ;  and  that,  in  the  case 
of  a  dare-devil,  what  he  (or  she)  dares  is  the  devil.  In 
this  case  the  initial  words  spit  and  dare  are  particu- 
larised by  the  final  ones  fire  and  devil.  The  true 
idea,  however,  confirms  the  original  rule.  A  spit-fire 


260  COMPOSITION. 

voids  his  fire  by  spitting.  A  dare-devil,  in  meeting 
the  fiend,  would  not  shrink  from  him,  but  would 
defy  him.  A  spit-fire  is  not  one  who  spits  fire,  but 
one  whose  fire  is  spit.  A  dare-devil  is  not  one  who 
dares  'even  the  devil,  but  one  by  whom  the  devil  is  even 
dared. 

§  356.  Of  the  two  elements  of  a  compound  word, 
which  is  the  most  important?  In  one  sense  the  latter, 
in  another  sense  the  former.  The  latter  word  is  the 
most  essential  ;  since  the  general  idea  of  trees  must  exist 
before  it  can  be  defined  or  particularised;  so  becoming 
the  idea  which  we  have  in  apple-tree,  rose-tree,  &c. 
The  former  word,  however,  is  the  most  influential. 
It  is  by  this  that  the  original  idea  is  qualified. 
The  latter  word  is  the  staple  original  element :  the 
former  is  the  superadded  influencing  element.  Com- 
pared with  each  other,  the  former  element  is  active, 
the  latter  passive.  Etymologically  speaking,  the  for- 
mer element,  in  English  compounds,  is  the  most  im- 
portant. 

§  357.  Most  numerous  are  the  observations  that  bear 
upon  the  detail  of  the  composition  of  words ;  e.  g., 
how  nouns  combine  with  nouns,  as  in  sun-beam; 
nouns  with  verbs,  as  in  dare-devil,  &c.  It  is  thought 
however,  sufficient  in  the  present  work  to  be  content 
with,  1.  defining  the  meaning  of  the  term  composi- 
tion ;  2.  explaining  the  nature  of  some  obscure  com- 
pounds. 

Composition  is  the  joining  together,  in  language,  of 
two  different  words,  and  treating  the  combination  as  a 
single  term.  Observe  the  words  in  italics. 

In  language. — A  great  number  of  our  compounds, 
like  the  word  merry-making,  are  divided  by  the  sign  -, 
or  the  hyphen.  It  is  very  plain  that  if  all  words  spelt 


COMPOSITION.  261 

with  a  hyphen  were  to  be  considered  as  compounds, 
the  formation  of  them  would  be  not  a  matter  of  speech, 
or  language,  but  one  of  writing  or  spelling.  This  dis- 
tinguishes compounds  in  language  from  mere  printers' 
compounds. 

Two.-— For  this,  see  §  369. 

Different. — In  Old  High  German  we  find  the  form 
selp-selpo.  Here  there  is  the  junction  of  two  words,  but 
not  the  junction  of  two  different  ones.  This  distin- 
guishes composition  from  gemination. 

Words. — In  father-s,  dear-er,  four-th,  &c.,  there  is 
the  addition  of  a  letter  or  a  syllable,  and  it  may  be  even 
of  the  part  of  a  word.  There  is  no  addition,  however,  of 
a  whole  word.  This  distinguishes  composition  from  de- 
rivation. 

Treating  the  combinatio?i  as  a  single  term. — In  de- 
termining between  derived  words  and  compound  words, 
there  is  an  occasional  perplexity ;  the  perplexity,  however, 
is  far  greater  in  determining  between  a  compound  word 
and  two  words.  In  the  eyes  of  one  grammarian  the  term 
mountain  height  may  be  as  truly  a  compound  word  as 
sun-beam.  In  the  eyes  of  another  grammarian  it  may  be 
no  compound  word,  but  two  words,  just  as  Alpine  height 
is  two  words  ;  mountain  being  dealt  with  as  an  adjective. 
It  is  in  the  determination  of  this  that  the  accent  plays  an 
important  part. 

§  358.  As  a  preliminary  to  a  somewhat  subtle  distinc- 
tion, the  attention  of  the  reader  is  drawn  to  the  following 
line,  slightly  altered,  from  Churchill : — 

"  Then  rest,  my  friend,  and  spare  thy  precious  breath." 

On  each  of  the  syllables  rest,  friend,  spare,  prgc-, 
breath,  there  is  an  accent.  Each  of  these  syllables 


262  COMPOSITION. 

must  be  compared  with  the  one  that  precedes  it;  rest 
with  then,  friend  with  my,  and  so  on  throughout  the  line. 
Compared  with  the  word  and,  the  word  spare  is  not 
only  accented,  but  the  accent  is  conspicuous  and  pro- 
minent. There  is  so  little  on  and.  so  much  on  spare,  that 
the  disparity  of  accent  is  very  manifest. 

Now,  if  in  the  place  of  and,  there  were  some  other 
word,  a  word  not  so  much  accented  as  spare,  but  still 
more  accented  than  and,  this  disparity  would  be  dimi- 
nished, and  the  accents  of  the  two  words  might  be  said 
to  be  at  par,  or  nearly  so.  As  said  before,  the  line  was 
slightly  altered  from  Churchill,  the  real  reading  being 

"  Then  re'st,  my  friend,  spare,  spare  thy  precious  breath." 

In  the  true  reading  we  actually  find  what  had  previously 
only  been  supposed.  In  the  words  spare,  spare,  the 
accents  are  nearly  at  par.  Such  the  difference  between 
accent  at  par  and  disparity  of  accent. 

Good  illustrations  of  the  parity  and  disparity  of  ac- 
cent may  be  drawn  from  certain  names  of  places.  Let 
there  be  such  a  sentence  as  the  following  :  the  lime  house 
near  the  bridge  north  of  the  new  port.  Compare  the 
parity  of  accent  on  the  pairs  of  words  lime  and  house, 
bridge  and  north,  new  and  port,  with  the  disparity  of 
accent  in  the  compound  words  Llmehouse,  Bridgenorth, 
and  Newport.  The  separate  words  beef  steak,  where 
the  accent  is  nearly  at  par,  compared  with  the 
compound  word  sweepstakes,  where  there  is  a  great  dis- 
parity of  accent,  are  further  illustrations  of  the  same  dif- 
ference. 

The  difference  between  a  compound  word  and  a  pair 
of  words  is  further  illustrated  by  comparing  such  terms 
as  the  following: — black  bird,  meaning  a  bird  that 


COMPOSITION.  263 

is  black,  with  blackbird  =  the  Latin  merula ;  blue 
bell  meaning  a  bell  that  is  blue,  with  bluebell,  the 
flower.  Expressions  like  a  sharp  edged  instrument, 
meaning  an  instrument  that  is  sharp  and  has  edges, 
as  opposed  to  a  sharp-edged  instrument,  meaning  an 
instrument  with  sharp  edges,  further  exemplify  this 
difference. 

Subject  .to  a  few  exceptions,  it  may  be  laid  down, 
that,  in  the  English  language,  there  is  no  composition 
unless  there  is  either  a  change  of  form  or  a  change  of 
accent. 

§  359.  The  reader  is  now  informed,  that  unless  he  has 
taken  an  exception  to  either  a  statement  or  an  inference, 
he  has  either  seen  beyond  what  has  been  already  laid 
down  by  the  author,  or  else  has  read  him  with  insuf- 
ficient attention.  This  may  be  shown  by  drawing  a 
distinction  between  a  compound  form  and  a  compound 
idea. 

In  the  words  a  red  house,  each  word  preserves  its 
natural  and  original  meaning,  and  the  statement  sug- 
gested by  the  term  is  that  a  house  is  red.  By  a  parity 
of  reasoning  a  mad  house  should  mean  a  house  that  is 
mad;  and  provided  that  each  word  retain  its  natural 
meaning  and  its  natural  accent,  such  is  the  fact.  Let  a 
house  mean,  as  it  often  does,  a  family.  Then  the  phrase, 
a  mad  house,  means  that  the  house,  or  family,  is  mad, 
just  as  a  red  house  means  that  the  house  is  red.  Such, 
however,  is  not  the  current  meaning  of  the  word.  Every 
one  knows  that  a  mad  house  means  a  house  for  mad  men  ; 
in  which  case  it  is  treated  as  a  compound  word,  and  has 
a  marked  accent  on  the  first  syllable,  just  as  Lime- 
house  has.  Now,  compared  with  the  word  red  house, 
meaning  a  house  of  a  red  colour,  and  compared  with  the 
words  mad  hou,se,  meaning  a  deranged  family,  the  word 


264  COMPOSITION. 

madhouse,  in  its  common  sense,  expressed  a  compound 
idea ;  as  opposed  to  two  ideas,  or  a  double  idea.  The 
word  beef  steak  is  evidently  a  compound  idea ;  but  as 
there  is  no  disparity  of  accent,  it  is  not  a  compound 
word.  Its  sense  is  compound.  Its  form  is  not  compound 
but  double.  This  indicates  the  objection  anticipated, 
which  is  this :  viz.,  that  a  definition,  which  would 
exclude  such  a  word  as  beef  steak  from  the»  list  of  com- 
pounds, is,  for  that  very  reason,  exceptionable.  I  answer 
to  this,  that  the  term  in  question  is  a  compound  idea, 
and  not  a  compound  form ;  in  other  words,  that  it  is  a 
compound  in  logic,  but  not  a  compound  in  etymology. 
Now  etymology,  taking  cognisance  of  forms  only,  has 
nothing  to  do  with  ideas,  except  so  far  as  they  influence 
forms. 

Such  is  the  commentary  upon  the  words,  treating 
the  combination  as  a  single  term ;  in  other  words,  such 
the  difference  between  a  compound  word  and  two 
words.  The  rule,  being  repeated,  stands  (subject  to 
exceptions  indicated  above)  thus : — there  is  no  true 
composition  without  either  a  change  of  form  or  a  change 
of  accent. 

§  360.  As  I  wish  to  be  clear  upon  this  point,  I  shall 
illustrate  the  statement  by  its  application. 

The  term  tree-rose  is  often  pronounced  tree  r6se ; 
that  is,  with  the  accent  at  par.  It  is  compound  in  the 
one  case  ;  it  is  a  pair  of  words  in  the  other. 

The  terms  mountain  ash  and  mountain  height  are 
generally  (perhaps  always)  pronounced  with  an  equal 
accent  on  the  syllables  mount-  and  ash,  mount-  and 
height,  respectively.  In  this  case  the  word  mountain 
must  be  dealt  with  as  an  adjective,  and  the  words  con- 
sidered as  two.  The  word  mountain  wave  is  often 
pronounced  with  a  visible  diminution  of  accent  on  the 


COMPOSITION.  265 

last  syllable.     In  this  case  there  is  a  disparity  of  accent, 
and  the  word  is  compound. 

§  361.  The  following  quotation  indicates  a  further 
cause  of  perplexity  in  determining  between  compound 
words  and  two  words  : — 

l. 

A  wet  sheet  and  a  blowing  gale, 

A  breeze  that  follows  fast ; 
That  fills  the  white  and  swelling  sail, 

And  bends  the  gallant  mast. 

ALLAN  CUNNINGHAM. 

2. 

Britannia  needs  no  bulwarks, 
No  towers  along  the  steep ; 
Her  march  is  o'er  the  mountain-wave, 
Her  home  is  on  the  deep. 

THOMAS  CAMPBELL. 


To  speak  first  of  the  term  gallant  mast.  If  gallant 
mean  brave,  there  are  two  words.  If  the  words  be  two, 
there  is  a  stronger  accent  on  mast.  If  the  accent  on 
mast  be  stronger,  the  rhyme  with  fast  is  more  complete  ; 
in  other  words,  the  metre  favours  the  notion  of  the 
words  being  considered  as  two.  Gallant-mast,  however, 
is  a  compound  word,  with  an  especial  nautical  meaning. 
In  this  case  the  accent  is  stronger  on  gal-  and  weaker 
on  -mast,  This,  however,  is  not  the  state  of  things 
that  the  metre  favours.  The  same  applies  to  mountain 
wave.  The  same  person  who  in  prose  would  throw  a 
stronger  accent  on  mount-  and  a  weaker  one  on  wave 
(so  dealing  with  the  word  as  a  compound),  might,  in  poetry, 
make  the  words  two,  by  giving  to  the  last  syllable  a  parity 
of  accent. 

The  following  quotation  from  Ben  Jonson  may  be 
13 


266  COMPOSITION. 

read  in   two  ways ;  and  the  accent  may  vary  with  the 
reading : 

i. 

Lay  thy  bow  of  pearl  apart, 
And  thy  silver  shining  quiver. 

2. 

Lay  thy  bow  of  pearl  apart, 
And  thy  silver-shining  quiver. 

Cynthia's  Revels. 

§  362.  On  certain  words  wherein  the  fact  of  their 
being  compound  is  obscured. — Composition  is  the  addi- 
tion of  a  word  to  a  word,  derivation  is  the  addition  of 
certain  letters  or  syllables  to  a  word.  In  a  compound 
form  each  element  has  a  separate  and  independent  exist- 
ence ;  in  a  derived  form,  only  one  of  the  elements  has 
such.  Now  it  is  very  possible  that  in  an  older  stage  of 
a  language  two  words  may  exist,  may  be  put  together, 
and  may  so  form  a  compound,  each  word  having,  then, 
a  separate  and  independent  existence.  In  a  later  stage 
o£  language,  however,  only  one  of  these  words  may 
have  a  separate  and  independent  existence,  the  other 
having  become  obsolete.  In  this  case  a  compound  word 
would  take  the  appearance  of  a  derived  one,  since  but 
one  of  its  elements  could  be  exhibited  as  a  separate 
and  independent  word.  Such  is  the  case  with,  amongst 
others,  the  word  bishop-ric.  In  the  present  language 
the  word  ric  has  no  separate  and  independent  exist- 
ence. For  all  this,  the  word  is  a  'true  compound, 
since,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  we  have  the  noun  rice  as 
a  separate,  independent  word,  signifying  kingdom  or 
domain. 

Again,  without  becoming  obsolete,  a  word  may  alter 
its  form.  This  is  the  case  with  most  of  our  adjectives 


COMPOSITION.  267 

in  -ly.  At  present  they  appear  derivative ;  their  ter- 
mination -ly  having  no  separate  and  independent  exist- 
ence. The  older  language,  however,  shows  that  they  are 
compounds ;  since  -ly  is  nothing  else  than  -lie,  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;  -lih,  Old  High  German  ;  -leiks,  Moeso-Gothic  ;  = 
like,  or  similis,  and  equally  with  it  an  independent  separate 
word. 

§  363.  "  Subject  to  a  few  exceptions,  it  may  be  laid 
down,  that  there  is  no  true  composition  unless  there  is 
either  a  change  of  form  or  a  change  of  accent" — Such  is 
the  statement  made  in  §  358.  The  first  class  of  excep- 
tions consists  of  those  words  where  the  natural  tendency 
to  disparity  of  accent  is  traversed  by  some  rule  of 
euphony.  For  example,  let  two  words  be  put  together, 
which  at  their  point  of  contact  form  a  combination  of 
sounds  foreign  to  our  habits  of  pronunciation.  The 
rarity  of  the  combination  will  cause  an  effort  in  utter- 
ance. The  effort  in  utterance  will  cause  an  accent  to 
be  laid  on  the  latter  half  of  the  compound.  This  will 
equalize  the  accent,  and  abolish  the  disparity.  The 
word  monkshood,  the  name  of  a  flower  (aconitum  na- 
pellus),  where,  to  my  ear  at  least,  there  is  quite  as  much 
accent  on  the  -hood  as  on  the  monks-,  may  serve  in  the 
way  of  illustration.  Monks  is  one  word,  hood  another. 
When  joined  together,  the  A-  of  the  -hood  is  put  in  im- 
mediate apposition  with  the  ^  of  the  monks-.  Hence 
the  combination  monkshood.  At  the  letters  s  and  h  is 
the  point  of  contact.  Now  the  sound  of  s  followed  im- 
mediately by  the  sound  of  A  is  a  true  aspirate.  But 
true  aspirates  are  rare  in  the  English  language.  Being 
of  rare  occurrence,  the  pronunciation  of  them  is  a  matter 
of  attention  and  effort ;  and  this  attention  and  effort 
create  an  accent  which  otherwise  would  be  absent. 


268  COMPOSITION. 

Hence    words    like    monks-hood,    well-head,   and    some 
others. 

Real  reduplications  of  consonants,  as  in  h6p-pole,  may 
have  the  same  parity  of  accent  with  the  true  aspirates : 
and  for  the  same  reasons.  They  are  rare  combinations 
that  require  effort  and  attention. 

§  364.  The  second  class  of  exceptions  contains  those 
words  wherein  between  the  first  element  and  the  second 
there  is  so  great  a  disparity,  either  in  the  length  of  the 
vowel,  or  the  length  of  the  syllable  en  masse,  as  to  coun- 
teract the  natural  tendency  of  the  first  element  to  become 
accented.  One  of  the  few  specimens  of  this  class  (which 
after  all  may  consist  of  double  words)  is  the  term  upstand- 
ing. Here  it  should  be  remembered,  that  words  like 
haphazard,  foolhardy,  upholder,  and  withhold  come 
under  the  first  class  of  the  exceptions. 

§  365.  The  third  class  of  exceptions  contains  words 
like  perchance  and  perhaps.  In  all  respects  but  one 
these  are  double  words,  just  as  by  chance  is  a  double 
word.  Per,  however,  differs  from  by  in  having  no  sepa- 
rate existence.  This  sort  of  words  we  owe  to  the  multi- 
plicity of  elements  (classical  and  Gothic)  in  the  English 
language. 

§  366.  Peacock,  peahen. — If  these  words  be  rendered 
masculine  or  feminine  by  the  addition  of  the  elements 
-cock  and  -hen,  the  statements  made  in  the  beginning  of 
the  present  chapter  are  invalidated.  Since,  if  the  word 
pea-  be  particularized,  qualified,  or  defined  by  the  words 
-cock  and  -hen,  the  second  term  defines  or  particularises 
the  first,  which  is  contrary  to  the  rule  of  §  356.  The 
truth,  however,  is,  that  the  words  -cock  and  -hen  are 
defined  by  the  prefix  pea-.  Preparatory  to  the  exhibi- 
tion of  this,  let  us  remember  that  the  word  pea  (although 


COMPOSITION.  269 

now  found  in  composition  only)  is  a  true  and  indepen- 
dent substantive,  the  name  of  a  species  of  fowl,  like 
pheasant,  partridge,  or  any  other  appellation.  It  is  the 
Latin  pavo,  German  pfau.  Now  if  the  word  peacock 
mean  a  pea  (pfau  or  pavo)  that  is  a  male,  then  do  wood- 
cock, black-cock,  and  bantam-cock,  mean  woods,  blacks, 
and  bantams  that  are  male.  Or  if  the  word  peahen 
mean  a  pea  (pfau  or  pavo)  that  is  female,  then  do 
moorhen  and  guineahen  mean  moors  and  guineas  that  are 
female.  Again,  if  a  peahen  mean  a  pea  (pfau  or  pavo) 
that  is  female,  then  does  the  compound  pheasant-hen 
mean  the  same  as  hen-pheasant ;  which  is  not  the  case. 
The  fact  is  that  peacock  means  a  cock  that  is  a  pea 
(pfau  or  pavo) ;  peahen  means  a  hen  that  is  a  pea  (pfau 
or  pavo)  ]  and,  finally,  peafowl  means  a  fowl  that  is  a 
pea  (pfau  or  pavo).  In  the  same  way  moorfowl  means, 
not  a  moor  that  is  connected  with  a  fowl,  but  &fowl  that 
is  connected  with  a  moor. 

§  367.  It  must  be  clear  that  in  every  compound  word 
there  are,  at  least,  two  parts ;  i.  e.,  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  original,  and  the  whole  or  part  of  the  superadded 
word.  In  the  most  perfect  forms  of  inflection,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  third  element,  viz.,  a  vowel,  conso- 
nant, or  syllable  that  joins  the  first  word  with  the 
second. 

In  the  older  forms  of  all  the  Gothic  languages  the 
presence  of  this  third  element  was  the  rule  rather  than 
the  exception.  In  the  present  English  it  exists  in  but  few 
words. 

a.  The  -a-  in  black-a-moor  is  possibly  such  a  connect- 
ing element. 

b.  The  -in-  in  night-in-gale  is  most  probably  such  a 
connecting  element.     Compare  the  German  form  nacht- 


270  COMPOSITION. 

i-gale,  and  remember  the  tendency  of  vowels  to  take  the 
sound  of  -ng  before  g. 

§  368.  Improper  compounds. — The  -s-  in  words  like 
Thur-s-day,  hunt-s-man,  may  be  one  of  two  things. 

a.  It  may  be  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case,  so  that 
Thursday  =  Thoris  dies.     In  this  case  the  word  is  an 
improper  compound,  since  it  is  like  the  word  pater-f ami- 
lias  in  Latin,  in  a  common  state  of  syntactical  construc- 
tion. 

b.  It  may  be  a  connecting  sound,  like  the  -i-  in  nacht- 
i-gale.     Reasons   for  this   view   occur   in   the   following 
fact  :— 

In  the  modern  German  languages  the  genitive  case  of 
feminine  nouns  ends  otherwise  than  in  -s.  Nevertheless, 
the  sound  of  -s-  occurs  in  composition  equally,  whether  the 
noun  it  follows  be  masculine  or  feminine.  This  fact,  as 
far  as  it  goes,  makes  it  convenient  to  consider  the  sound 
in  question  as  a  connective  rather  than  a  case.  Probably, 
it  is  neither  one  nor  the  other  exactly,  but  the  effect  of  a 
false  analogy. 

§  369.  Decomposites. — "  Composition  is  the  joining 
together  of  two  words." — See  §  35T. 

Words  like  mid-ship-man,  gentle-man-like,  &c.,  where 
the  number  of  verbal  elements  seems  to  amount  to  three, 
are  no  exception  to  this  rule  ;  since  compound  radicals 
like  midship  and  gentleman,  are,  for  the  purposes  of  com- 
position, single  words.  Compounds  wherein  one  element 
is  compound  are  called  decomposites. 

§  370.  There  are  a  number  of  words  which  are  never 
found  by  themselves ;  or,  if  so  found,  have  never  the 
same  sense  that  they  have  in  combination.  Mark  the 
word  combination.  The  terms  in  question  are  points  of 
combination,  not  of  composition :  since  vthey  form  not  the 


COMPOSITION.  271 

parts  of  words,  but  the  parts  of  phrases.  Such  are  the 
expressions  time  and  tide — might  and  main — rede  me 
my  riddle — pay  your  shot — rhyme  and  reason,  &c. 
These  words  are  evidently  of  the  same  class,  though  not  of 
the  same  species  with  bishopric,  colewort,  spillikin,  gossip, 
mainswearer,  &c. 

These  last-mentioned  terms  give  us  obsolete  words  pre- 
served in  composition.  The  former  give  us  obsolete  words 
preserved  in  combination. 


DERIVATION   AND  INFLECTION. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

ON    DERIVATION    AND    INFLECTION. 

§  371.  DERIVATION,  like  etymology,  is  a  word  used  in 
a  wide  and  in  a  limited  sense.  In  the  wide  sense  of  the 
term,  every  word,  except  it  be  in  the  simple  form  of  a 
root,  is  a  derived  word.  In  this  sense  the  cases,  numbers, 
and  genders  of  nouns,  the  persons,  moods,  and  tenses  of 
verbs,  the  ordinal  numbers,  the  diminutives,  and  even  the 
compound  words,  are  alike  matters  of  derivation.  In  the 
wide  sense  of  the  term  the  word  fathers,  from  father,  is 
equally  in  a  state  of  derivation  with  the  word  strength 
from  strong. 

In  the  use  of  the  word,  even  in  its  limited  sense,  there 
is  considerable  laxity  and  uncertainty. 

Gender,  number,  case. — These  have  been  called  the 
accidents  of  the  noun,  and  these  it  has  been  agreed  to 
separate  from  derivation  in  its  stricter  sense,  or  from 
derivation  properly  so  called,  and  to  class  together  under 
the  name  of  declension.  Nouns  are  declined.  t 

Person,  number,  tense,  voice. — These  have  been  called 
the  accidents  of  a  verb,  and  these  it  has  been  agreed 
to  separate  from  derivation  properly  so  called,  and  to 
class  together  under  the  name  of  conjugation.  Verbs  are 
conjugated. 

Conjugation  and  declension  constitute  inflection. 
Nouns  and  verbs,  speaking  generally,  are  inflected. 


DEKIVATION  AND   INFLECTION.  273 

Inflection,  a  part  of  derivation  in  its  wider  sense,  is 
separated  from  derivation  properly  so  called,  or  from  de- 
rivation in  its  limited  sense. 

The  degrees  of  comparison,  or  certain  derived  forms 
of  adjectives ;  the  ordinals,  or  certain  derived  forms  of 
the  numerals ;  the  diminutives,  (fee.,  or  certain  derived 
forms  of  the  substantive,  have  been  separated  from  deri- 
vation properly  so  called,  and  considered  as  parts  of  in- 
flection. I  am  not  certain,  however,  that  for  so  doing 
there  is  any  better  reason  than  mere  convenience. 

Derivation  proper,  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter, 
comprises  all  the  changes  that  words  undergo,  which  are 
not  referable  to  some  of  the  preceding  heads.  As  such, 
it  is,  in  its  details,  a  wider  field  than  even  composition. 
The  details,  however,  are  not  entered  into. 

§  372.  Derivation  proper  may  be  divided  according  to 
a  variety  of  principles.  Amongst  others — 

1.  According  to  the  evidence. — In  the  evidence  that  a 
word  is  not  simple,  but  derived,  there  are  at  least  two 
degrees. 

a.  That  the  word  strength  is  a  derived  word  I  collect 
to  a  certainty  from  the  word  strong,  an  independent  form, 
which  I  can  separate  from  it.     Of  the  nature  of  the  word 
strength  there  is  the  clearest  evidence,  or  evidence  of  the 
first  degree. 

b.  Fowl,  hail,  nail,  sail,  tail,  soul ;  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
fugel,  hcegel,  ncegel,  segel,  tcegel,  sawel. — These  words 
are  by  the  best  grammarians  considered  as  derivatives. 
Now,  with  these  words  I  cannot  do  what  was*  done  with 
the  word  strength,  I  cannot   take  from  them  the  part 
which  I  look  upon  as  the  derivational  addition,  and  after 
that  leave  an  independent  word.     Strength  -th  is  a  true 
word ;  fmol  or  fugel  -I  is  no  true  word.     If  I   believe 

13* 


274  DERIVATION   AND   INFLECTION. 

these  latter  words  to  be  derivations  at  all,  I  do  it  be- 
cause I  find  in  words  like  harelle,  &c.,  the  -I  as  a  deriva- 
tional addition.  Yet,  as  the  fact  of  a  word  being  some- 
times used  as  a  derivational  addition  does  not  preclude  it 
from  being  at  other  times  a  part  of  the  root,  the  evidence 
that  the  words  in  question  are  not  simple,  but  derived, 
is  not  cogent.  In  other  words,  it  is  evidence  of  the  sec- 
ond degree. 

II.  According  to  the  effect. — The  syllable  -en  in  the 
word  whiten  changes  the  noun  white  into  a  verb.     This  is 
its  effect.     We  may  so  classify  derivational  forms  as  to 
arrange  combinations  like  -en  (whose  effect  is  to  give  the 
idea  of  the  verb)  in  one  order ;  whilst  combinations  like 
-th  (whose  effect  is,  as  in  the  word  strength,  to  give  the 
idea  of  abstraction)  form  another  order. 

III.  According  to  the  form. — Sometimes  the  deriva- 
tional element   is  a  vowel  (as  the  -ie  in  doggie},  some- 
times  a   consonant  (as   the  -th  in  strength),  sometimes 
a  vowel   and    consonant   combined ;    in    other  words    a 
syllable   (as   the   -en,   in  whiten),   sometimes   a    change 
of  vowel  without   any  addition   (as   the  -i  in  tip,   com- 
pared   with    top),    sometimes    a    change    of    consonant 
without    any   addition   (as    the    z    in    prize,   compared 
with  price).     Sometimes  it  is   a  change  of  accent,  like  a 
survey,  compared  with  to  survey.     To   classify  deriva- 
tions in  this  manner,  is  to  classify  them  according  to  their 
form. 

IV.  According  to  the  historical  origin  of  the  deriva- 
tional elements. 

V.  According  to  the  number  of  the  derivational  ele- 
ments.— In  fisher.,  as  compared  vfiihfish,  there  is  but  one 
derivational  affix.     In  fishery,  as  compared  with  fish,  the 
number  of  derivational  elements  is  two. 


DEKIVATION  AND   INFLECTION.  275 

§  373.  In  words  like  bishopric,  and  many  others  men- 
tioned in  the  last  Chapter,  we  had  compound  words  under 
the  appearance  of  derived  ones ;  in  words  like  upmost, 
and  many  others,  we  have  derivation  under  the  appear- 
ance of  composition. 


276  ADVERBS. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 


ADVERBS. 


§  374.  Adverbs. — The  adverbs  are  capable  of  being 
classified  after  a  variety  of  principles. 

Firstly,  they  may  be  divided  according  to  their  mean- 
ing. In  this  case  we  speak  of  the  adverbs  of  time,  place, 
number,  manner. 

§  375.  Well,  better,  ill,  worse. — Here  we  have  a  class 
of  adverbs  expressive  of  degree,  or  intensity.  Adverbs 
of  this  kind  are  capable  of  taking  an  inflection,  viz.,  that 
of  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees. 

Now,  then,  here,  there. — In  the  idea  expressed  by 
these  words  there  are  no  degrees  of  intensity.  Adverbs 
of  this  kind  are  incapable  of  taking  any  inflection. 

Adverbs  differ  from  nouns  and  verbs  in  being  suscepti- 
ble of  one  sort  of  inflection  only,  viz.,  that  of  degree. 

§  376.  Secondly,  adverbs  may  be  divided  according  to 
their  form  and  origin. 

Better,  worse. — Here  the  words  are  sometimes  ad- 
verbs; sometimes  adjectives. —  This  book  is  bettei*  than 
that — here  better  agrees  with  book,  and  is,  therefore,  ad- 
jectival. This  looks  better  than  that  — here  better  quali- 
fies looks,  and  is  therefore  adverbial.  Again ;  to  do  a  thing 
with  violence  is  equivalent  to  do  a  thing  violently. 
This  shows  how  adverbs  may  arise  out  of  cases.  In 
words  like  the  English  better,  the  Latin  vi  =  violent  er, 
the  Greek  KCL\OV  =  KaXws,  we  have  adjectives  in  their 


ADVEKBS.  277 

degrees,  and  substantives  in  their  cases,  with  adverbial 
powers.  In  other  words,  nouns  are  deflected  from  their 
natural  sense  to  an  adverbial  one.  Adverbs  of  this  kind 
are  adverbs  of  deflection. 

Brightly,  bravely. — Here  an  adjective  is  rendered 
adverbial  by  the  addition  of  the  derivative  syllable  -ly. 
Adverbs  like  brightly,  &c.,  may  be  called  adverbs  of 
derivation. 

Now. — This  word  has  not  satisfactorily  been  shown  to 
have  originated  as  any  other  part  of  speech  but  as  an  ad- 
verb. Words  of  this  sort  are  adverbs  absolute. 

§  377.  When,  now,  well,  worse,  better — here  the  ad- 
verbial expression  consists  in  a  single  word,  and  is  sim- 
ple. To-day,  yesterday,  not  at  all,  somewhat — here  the 
adverbial  expression  consists  of  a  compound  word,  or 
a  phrase.  This  indicates  the  division  of  adverbs  into 
simple  and  complex. 

§  378.  Adverbs  of  deflection  may  originally  have 
been — 

a.  Substantive ;    as  needs  in  such  expressions  as  1 
needs  must  go. 

b.  Adjectives  ;  as  the  sun  shines  bright. 

c.  Prepositions ;  as  /  go  in,  we  go  out ;  though,  it 
should  be  added,  that  in  this  case  we  may  as  reasonably 
derive  the  preposition  from  the  adverb  as  the  adverb  from 
the  preposition. 

§  379.  Adjectives  of  deflection  derived  from  substan- 
tives may  originally  have  been — 

a.  Substantives  in  the  genitive  case  ;  as  needs. 

b.  Substantives  in  the  dative  case  ;  as  whil-om,  an  an- 
tiquated word   meaning  at  times,  and  often  improperly 
spelt  whilome.     In  such  an  expression  as  wait  a  while, 
the  word  still  exists  ;  and  while  =  time,  or  rather  pause  ; 
since,  in  Danish,  hvile  =  rest. 


278  ADVERBS. 

El-se  (for  ell-es) ;  unawar-es  ;  eftsoon-s  are  adjectives 
in  the  genitive  case.  By  rights  is  a  word  of  the  same 
sort ;  the  -s  being  the  sign  of  the  genitive  singular  like 
the  -s  in.  father's,  and  not  of  the  aceusative  plural  like  the 
-5  in  fathers. 

Once  (on-es) ;  twice  (twi-es) ;  thrice  (thri-es)  are  nu- 
merals in  the  genitive  case. 

§  380.  Darkling". — This  is  no  participle  of  a  verb 
darkle,  but  an  adverb  of  derivation,  like  unwaringun  = 
unawares,  Old  High  German;  stillinge  =  secretly,  Mid- 
dle High  German ;  blindlings  =  blindly,  New  High  Ger- 
man ;  darnungo  =  secretly,  Old  Saxon  ;  nichtinge  =  by 
night,  Middle  Dutch ;  blindeling  =  blindly,  New  Dutch ; 
bcBclinga  =  backwards,  handlunga  =  hand  to  hand, 
Anglo-Saxon  ;  and,  finally,  blhidlins,  backlins,  darklins, 
middlins,  scantlins,  stridelins,  stowlins,  in  Lowland 
Scotch. 


" 


CERTAIN  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE.  279 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

ON  CERTAIN  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE. 

§  381.  IT  is  a  common  practice  for  languages  to  ex- 
press by  different  modifications  of  the  same  root  the  three 
following  ideas  : — 

1.  The  idea  of  rest  in  a  place. 

2.  The  idea  of  motion  towards  a  place. 

3.  The  idea  of  motion  from  a  place. 

This  hahit  gives  us  three  correlative  adverbs — one  of 
position,  and  two  of  direction. 

§  382.  It  is  also  a  common  practice  of  language  to  de- 
part from  the  original  expression  of  each  particular  idea, 
and  to  interchange  the  signs  by  which  they  are  expressed ; 
so  that  a  word  originally  expressive  of  simple  position  or 
rest  in  a  place  may  be  used  instead  of  the  word  expres- 
sive of  direction,  or  motion  between  two  places.  Hence 
we  say,  come  here,  when  come  hither  would  be  the  more 
correct  expression. 

§  383.  The  full  amount  of  change  in  this  repect  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  table,  illustrative  of  the  forms 
here,  hither,  hence. 

Mceso-Gothic. ]>ar,  J>a]j,  ]>a]>ro,  there,  thither,  thence. 

her,  hi]),  hidro,  here,  hither,  hence. 

Old  High  German  .  .  .  huar,  huara,  huanana,  where,  whither,  whence. 

dar,  dara,  danana,  there,  thither,  thence. 

hear,  hera,  hinana,  here,  hither,  hence. 


280 


CERTAIN   ADVERBS   OF   PLACE. 


Old  Saxon huar,  huar,  huanan, 

thar,  thar,  thanan, 
her,  her,  henan, 

Anglo-Saxon )>ar,  ]?ider,  }>onan, 

hvar,  hvider,  hvonan, 
her,  hider,  henan, 

Old  Norse ]>ar,  ]?aSra,  ]>a5an, 

hvar,  hvert,  bvafcan, 
her,  hefcra,  hefcan, 

Middle  High  German  .  da,  dan,  dannen, 
wa,  war,  wannen, 
hie,  her,  hennen, 

Modern  High  German .  da,  dar,  dannen, 

wo,  wohin,  wannen, 
hier,  her,  hinnen, 


where,  whither,  whence, 
there,  thither,  thence, 
here,  hither,  hence, 
there,  thither,  thence, 
where,  whither,  whence, 
here,  hither,  hence, 
there,  thither,  thence, 
where,  whither,  whence, 
here,  hither,  hence, 
there,  thither,  thence, 
where,  whither,  w/ience. 
here,  hither,  hence, 
there,  thither,  thence, 
where,  whither,  whence, 
here,  hither,  hence. 


§  384.  Local  terminations  of  this  kind,  in  general, 
were  commoner  in  the  earlier  stages  of  language 
than  at  present.  The  following  are  from  the  Mceso- 
Gothic : — 


Innajjro 
Uta>ro 
Iu}>a)>r6 
Fairra>ro 


=from  within. 
=  from  without. 
=  from  above. 
=from  afar. 


Alla]?r6       =.from  all  quarters. 

§  385.  The  -ce  (=  es]  in  hen-ce,  when-ce,  then-ce,  has 
yet  to  be  Satisfactorily  explained.  The  Old  English  is 
whenn-es,  thenn-es.  As  far,  therefore,  as  the  spelling  is 
concerned,  they  are  in  the  same  predicament  with  the 
word  once,  which  is  properly  on-es,  the  genitive  of  one. 
This  origin  is  probable,  but  not  certain. 

§  386.  Yonder.—  In  the  Mceso-Gothic  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing forms  :  jainar,  j&ina,  jan\ro  =  illic,  illuc,  illinc. 
They  do  not.  however,  quite  explain  the  form  yon-d-er. 
It  is  not  clear  whether  the  c£  =  the  -d  wj&ind,  or  the  }>  in 
jain\ro. 


CEBTAIN   ADVEKBS   OF   PLACE.  281 

§  387.  Anon,  is  used  by  Shakspeare,  in  the  sense  of 
presently. — The  probable  history  of  this  word  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  first  syllable  contains  a  root  akin  to  the  root 
yon,  signifying  distance  in  place.  The  second  is  a 
shortened  form  of  the  Old  High  German  and  Middle 
High  German,  -nt,  a  termination  expressive,  1,  of  re- 
moval in  space  ;  2,  of  removal  in  time ;  Old  High  Ger- 
man, enont,  ennont ;  Middle  High  German,  enentlig, 
jenunt  =  beyond. 


282          WHEN,  THEN,  AND  THAN. 


CHAPTER   XXXV. 

ON    WHEN,    THEN,    AND    THAN. 

§  388.  THE  Anglo-Saxon  adverbs  are  whenne  and 
]>enne  =  when,  then. 

The  masculine  accusative  cases  of  the  relative  and 
demonstrative  pronoun  are  hwcene  (hwone)  and  }>cene 
(]>otie). 

Notwithstanding  the  difference,  the  first  form  is  a 
variety  of  the  second  ;  so  that  the  adverbs  when  and  then 
are  really  pronominal  in  origin. 

§  389.  As  to  the  word  than,  the  conjunction  of  com- 
parison, it  is  another  form  of  then  :  the  notions  of  order, 
sequence,  and  comparison  being  allied. 

This  is  good  ;  then  (or  next  in  order)  that  is  good,  is 
an  expression  sufficiently  similar  to  this  is  better  than 
that  to  have  given  rise  to  it ;  and  in  Scotch  and  certain 
provincial  dialects  we  actually  find  th&n  instead  of  then. 


PREPOSITIONS   AND   CONJUNCTIONS.  283 


CHAPTER   XXXVI. 

PREPOSITIONS    AND    CONJUNCTIONS. 

§  390.  Prepositions. — Prepositions  are  wholly  unsus- 
ceptible of  inflection. 

§  391.  Conjunctions. — Conjunctions,  like  prepositions, 
are  wholly  unsusceptible  of  inflection. 

§  392.  Yes,  no. — Although  not  may  be  considered  to 
be  an  adverb,  nor  a  conjunction,  and  none  a  noun,  these 
two  words,  the  direct  categorical  affirmative,  and  the  direct 
categorical  negative,  are  referable  to  none  of  the  current 
parts  of  speech.  Accurate  grammar  places  them  in  a 
class  by  themselves. 

§  393.  Particles. — The  word  particle  is  a  collective 
term  for  all  those  parts  of  speech  that  are  naturally  un- 
susceptible of  inflection ;  comprising,  1,  interjections ; 
2,  direct  categorical  affirmatives ;  3,  direct  categorical 
negatives ;  4,  absolute  conjunctions ;  5,  absolute  preposi- 
tions ;  6,  adverbs  unsusceptible  of  degrees  of  comparison ; 
7,  inseparable  prefixes. 


284  •        THE  WORDS  MINE  AND  THINE. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

ON     THE     GRAMMATICAL     POSITION      OF     THE     WORDS     MINE     AND 

THINE. 

§  394.  THE  inflection  of  pronouns  has  its  natural  pe- 
culiarities in  language*.  It  has  also  its  natural  difficulties 
in  philology.  These  occur  not  in  one  language  in  particu- 
lar, but  in  all  generally. 

The  most  common  peculiarity  in  the  grammar  of  pro- 
nouns is  the  fact  of  what  may  he  called  their  convertibili- 
ty. Of  this  convertibility  the  following  statements  serve 
as  illustration : — 

1.  Of  case. — In  our  own  language  the  words  my  and 
thy,  although  at  present  possessives,  were  previously  da- 
tives, and,  earlier  still,  accusatives.     Again,  the  accusa- 
tive you  replaces  the  nominative  ye,  and  vice  versa. 

2.  Of  number. — The  words  thou  and  thee  are,  except 
in  the  mouths  of  Quakers,  obsolete.     The  plural  forms, 
ye  and  you,  have  replaced  them. 

3.  Of  person. — The  Greek  language  gives  us  exam- 
ples of  this  in  the  promiscuous  use  of  vw,  /ui>,  o-<£e,  and 
eavrov  ]  whilst  sick  and  sik  are  used  with  a  similar  lati- 
tude in  the  Middle  High  German  and  Scandinavian. 

4.  Of  class. — The  demonstrative  pronouns  become — 

a.  Personal  pronouns. 

b.  Relative  pronouns. 

c.  Articles. 


THE   WORDS   MINE   AND   THINE.  285 

The  reflective  pronoun  often  becomes  reciprocal. 

§  395.  These  statements  are  made  for  the  sake  of 
illustrating,  not  of  exhausting,  the  subject.  It  follows, 
however,  as  an  inference  from  them,  that  the  classification 
of  pronouns  is  complicated.  Even  if  we  knew  the  origin- 
al power  and  derivation  of  every  form  of  every  pronoun 
in  a  language,  it  would  be  far  from  an  easy  matter  to  de- 
termine therefrom  the  paradigm  that  they  should  take  in 
grammar.  To  place  a  word  according  to  its  power  in  a 
late  stage  of  language  might  confuse  the  study  of  an 
early  stage.  To  say  that  because  a  word  was  once  in  a 
given  class,  it  should  always  be  so,  would  be  to  deny  that 
in  the  present  English  they,  these,  and  she  are  personal 
pronouns  at  all. 

The  two  tests,  then,  of  the  grammatical  place  of  a  pro- 
noun, its  present  power  and  its  original  power,  are  often 
conflicting. 

§  396.  In  the  English  language  the  point  of  most  im- 
portance in  this  department  of  grammar  is  the  place  of 
forms  like  mine  and  thine  ;  in  other  words,  of  the  forms 
in  -n. 

Now,  if  we  take  up  the  common  grammars  of  the 
English  language  as  it  is,  we  find,  that,  whilst  my  and  thy 
are  dealt  with  as  genitive  cases,  mine  and  thine  are  con- 
sidered adjectives.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  grammars,  how- 
ever, min  and  \in,  the  older  forms  of  mine  and  thine,  are 
treated  as  genitives  or  possessives. 

§  397.  This  gives  us  two  views  of  the  words  my  and 
thy. 

a.  They  may  be  genitives  or  possessives,  which  were 
originally  datives  or  accusatives  ;  in  which  case  they  are 
deduced  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  mec  and  pec. 

b.  They  may  be  the  Anglo-Saxon  min  and  \in,  minus 
the  final  -n. 


286  THE   WORDS   MINE   AND   THINE. 

Each  of  these  views  has  respectable  supporters.  The 
former  is  decidedly  preferred  by  the  present  writer. 

§  398.  What,  however,  are  thine  and  mine  7  Are  they 
adjectives  like  meus,  tuus,  and  suus,  or  cases  like  mei, 
tui,  sui,  in  Latin,  and  hi-s  in  English  ? 

It  is  no  answer  to  say  that  sometimes  they  are  one 
and  sometimes  the  other.  They  were  not  so  originally. 
They  did  not  begin  with  meaning  two  things  at  once; 
on  the  contrary,  they  were  either  possessive  cases,  of 
which  the  power  became  subsequently  adjectival,  or 
adjectives,  of  which  the  power  became  subsequently 
possessive. 

§  399.  In  Anglo-Saxon  and  in  Old  Saxon  there  is  but 
one  form  to  express  the  Latin  mei  (or  tui),  on  the  one  side, 
and  meus,  mea,  meum  (or  tuus,  &c.),  on  the  other.  In 
several  other  Gothic  tongues,  however,  there  was  the  fol- 
lowing difference  of  form  : 


Moeso-  Gothic meina  =  mei  as  opposed  to  meins    =  meus. 

)>ema  =  tui ]>eins  =  tuns. 

Old  High  German  .  .  min  =  mei miner  =  meus. 

din  =  tui diner  =  tuus. 

Old  Norse min  =  mei minn  =  meus. 

]>in  =  tui J>inn  =  tuus. 

Middle  Dutch mins  =  mei min  =  meus. 

dins  =  tui din  =  tuus. 

Modern  High  German  ,  .  mein  =  mei meiner  =  meus. 

dein  =  tui deiner  =  tuns. 


In  these  differences  of  form  lie  the  best  reasons  for  the 
assumption  of  a  genitive  case,  as  the  origin  of  an  adjec- 
tival form ;  and,  undoubtedly,  in  those  languages  where 
both  forms  occur,  it  is  convenient  to  consider  one  as  a  case 
and  one  as  an  adjective. 

§  400.  But  this  is  not  the  present  question.     In  An- 


THE   WOEDS   MINE   AND   THINE.  287 

glo-Saxon  there  is  but  one  form,  min  and  }>in  ==?  mei  and 
meus,  tui  and  tmis,  indifferently.  Is  this  form  an  oblique 
case  or  an  adjective  ? 

This  involves  two  sorts  of  evidence. 

§  401.  Etymological  evidence. — Assuming  two  pow- 
ers for  the  words  min  and  }>m,  one  genitive,  and  one  ad- 
jectival, which  is  the  original  one?  Or,  going  beyond 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  assuming  that  of  two  forms  like 
meina  and  meins,  the  one  has  been  derived  from  the 
other,  which  is  the  primitive,  radical,  primary,  or  original 
one? 

Men,  from  whom  it  is  generally  unsafe  to  differ,  con- 
sider that  the  adjectival  form  is  the  derived  one ;  and, 
as  far  as  forms  like  miner,  as  opposed  to  mm,  are 
concerned,  the  evidence  of  the  foregoing  list  is  in 
their  favour.  But  what  is  the  case  with  the  Middle 
Dutch  ?  The  genitive  mins  is  evidently  the  derivative  of 
min. 

The  reason  why  the  forms  like  miner  seem  derived 
is  because  they  are  longer  and  more  complex  than  the 
others.  Nevertheless,  it  is  by  no  means  an  absolute  rule 
in  philology  that  the  least  compound  form  is  the  oldest. 
A  word  may  be  adapted  to  a  secondary  meaning  by  a 
change  in  its  parts  in  the  way  of  omission,  as  well  as  by  a 
change  in  the  way  of  addition. 

§  402.  As  to  the  question  whether  it  is  most  likely  for 
an  adjective  to  be  derived  from  a  case,  or  a  case  from  an 
adjective,  it  may  be  said,  that  philology  furnishes  instances 
both  ways.  Ours  is  a  case  derived,  in  syntax  at  least, 
from  an  adjective.  Cujum  (as  in  cujum  pecus)  and  ses- 
tertium  are  Latin  instances  of  a  nominative  case  being 
evolved  from  an  oblique  one. 

§  403.  Syntactic  evidence. — If  in  Anglo-Saxon  we 
found  such  expressions  as  dcel  min  =  pars  mei,  hcelf  \in 


288  THE   WORDS   MINE   AND   THINE. 

=  dimidium  tui,  we  should  have  a  reason,  as  far  as  it 
went,  for  believing  in  the  existence  of  a  true  genitive. 
Such  instances,  however,  have  yet  to  be  quoted. 

§  404.  Again — as  mm  and  }>in  are  declined  like  ad- 
jectives, even  as  meus  and  tuus  are  so  declined,  we  have 
means  of  ascertaining  their  nature  from  the  form  they 
take  in  certain  constructions ;  thus,  minra,  =  raeorum, 
and  mime  =  mess,  are  the  genitive  plural  and  the  dative 
singular  respectively.  Thus,  too,  the  Anglo-Saxon  for 
of  thy  eyes  should  be  eagena  }>inra,  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  for  to  my  widow,  should  be  wuduwan  minre ; 
just  as  in  Latin,  they  would  be  oculorum  tuorum,  and 
viducB  mecB. 

If,  however,  instead  of  this  we  find  such  expressions  as 
eagena  }>in,  or  wuduwan  min,  we  find  evidence  in  favour 
of  a  genitive  case ;  for  then  the  construction  is  not  one  of 
concord,  but  one  of  government,  and  the  words  ]>in  and 
min  must  be  construed  as  the  Latin  forms  tui  and  mei 
would  be  in  oculorum  mei,  and  virtues  mei ;  viz. :  as  gen- 
itive cases.  Now,  whether  a  sufficient  proportion  of  such 
constructions  exist  or  not,  they  have  not  yet  been  brought 
forward. 

Such  instances,  even  if  quoted,  would  not  be  con- 
clusive. 

§  405.  Why  would  they  not  be  conclusive  ?  Because 
even  of  the  adjective  there  are  iminflected  forms. 

As  early  as  'the  Mosso-Gothic  stage  of  our  lan- 
guage, we  find  rudiments  of  this  omission  of  the  inflection. 
The  possessive  pronouns  in  the  neuter  singular  some- 
times take  the  inflection, ,  sometimes  appear  as  crude 
forms,  ram  that  a  badi  theinata  =  apov  aov  rov  /cpd/3- 
(BaTov  (Mark  ii.  9),  opposed  to  nim  thata  badi  thein, 
two  verses  afterwards.  So  also  with  mein  and  meinata. 
It  is  remarkable  that  this  omission  should  begin  with 


THE   WORDS   MINE  AND   THINE.  289 

forms  so  marked  as  those  of  the  neuter  (-ata).  It  has, 
perhaps,  its  origin  in  the  adverbial  character  of  that 
gender. 

Old  High  German. — Here  the  nominatives,  both 
masculine  and  feminine,  lose  the  inflection,  whilst  the 
neuter  retains  it — thin  dohter,  sin  quenA,  min  dohter, 
sinaz  lib.  In  a  few  cases,  when  the  pronoun  comes  after, 
even  the  oblique  cases  drop  the  inflection. 

Middle  High  German. — Preceding  the  noun,  the  no- 
minative of  all  genders  is  destitute  of  inflection ;  sin  lib, 
min  ere,  dm  lib,  &c.  Following-  the  nouns,  the  oblique 
cases  do  the  same ;  ine  herse  sin.  The  influence  of  po- 
sition should  here  be  noticed.  Undoubtedly  a  place  after 
the  substantive  influences  the  omission  of  the  inflection. 
This  appears  in  its  maximum  in  the  Middle  High  Ger- 
man. In  Moeso-Gothic  we  have  mein  leik  and  leik  mein- 
ata. 

§  406.  Now  by  assuming  the  extension  of  the  Middle 
High  German  omission  of  the  inflection  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;  and  by  supposing  it  to  aifect  the  words  in  ques- 
tion in  all  positions  (i.  e.,  both  before  and  after  their 
nouns),  we  may  explain  the  constructions  in  question,  in 
case  they  occur.  But,  as  already  stated,  no  instances  of 
them  have  been  quoted. 

To  suppose  two  adjectival  forms,  one  inflected  (min, 
minre,  &c.),  and  one  uninflected,  or  common  to  all  genders 
and  both  numbers  (min),  is  to  suppose  no  more  than  is  the 
case  with  the  uninflected  ]>e,  as  compared  with  the  in- 
flected \c&t. 

§  407.  Hence,  the  evidence  required  in  order  to  make 
a  single  instance  of  min  or  fm,  the  necessary  equivalents 
to  mei  and  tui,  rather  than  to  meus  and  tuus,  must  con- 
sist in  the  quotation  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  some 

14 


290  THE  WORDS  MINE  AND  THINE. 

text,  wherein  min  or  ]>in  occurs  with  a  feminine  sub- 
stantive, in  an  oblique  case,  the  pronoun  preceding  the 
noun.  When  this  has  been  done,  it  will  be  time  enough 
to  treat  mine  and  thine  as  the  equivalents  to  mei  and  tui, 
rather  than  as  those  to  meus  and  tuus. 


-  >:.  .*  v 


CONSTITUTION  OF  WEAK  PE^TERITE.  291 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

ON    THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    WEAK    PRETERITE. 

§  408.  THE  remote  origin  of  the  weak  prseterite  in  -d 
or  -t,  has  been  considered  by  Grimm.  He  maintains 
that  it  is  the  d  in  d-d,  the  reduplicate  prseterite  of  do. 
In  all  the  Gothic  languages  the  termination  of  the  past 
tense  is  either  -da,  -ta,  -de,  -¥>i,  -d,  -t,  or  -ed,  for  the 
singular,  and  -don,  -ton,  -tumes,  or  -?>um,  for  the  plural ; 
in  other  words,  d,  or  an  allied  sound,  appears  once,  if 
not  oftener.  In  the  plural  praaterite  of  the  Moeso-  Gothic, 
however,  we  have  something  more,  viz.,  the  termination 
-dedum ;  as  nas-idedum,  nas-idedu]>,  nas-idedun,  from 
nas-ja  ;  sok-idedum,  s6k-idedu]>,  sok-iddeun,  from  sok-ja  ; 
salb-odedum,  salb-6dedu]> ,  salb-odedun,  from  salbo.  Here 
there  is  a  second  d.  The  same  takes  place  with  the  dual 
form  salb-odeduts,  and  with  the  subjunctive  forms,  salb- 
ddedjan,  salb-odeduts,  salb-odedi,  salb-odedeits,  salb- 
odedeima,  salb-6dedei]>,  salb-odedina.  The  English 
phrase,  we  did  salve,  as  compared  with  salb-odedum,  is 
confirmatory  of  this. 

§  409.  Some  remarks  of  Dr.  Trithen's  on  the  Sla- 
vonic prseterite,  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Philological 
Society,"  induce  me  to  prefer  a  different  doctrine,  and  to 
identify  the  -d  in  words  like  moved,  &c.,  with  the  -t  of  the 
passive  participles  of  the  Latin  language ;  as  found  in 
mon-iMis,  voc-a£-us,'  rap-J-us,  and  probably  in  Greek  forms 
like  TU(/>-0-e<f?. 


292  CONSTITUTION   OF  WEAK   PRETERITE. 

1.  The  Slavonic  praeterite  is  commonly  said  to  possess 
genders :  in  other  words,  there  is  one  form  for  speaking 
of  a  past  action  when  done  by  a  male,  and  another  for 
speaking  of  a  past  action  when  done  by  a  female. 

2.  These  forms  are  identical  with  those  of  the  partici- 
ples, masculine  or  feminine,  as  the  case  may  be.     Indeed 
the  praeterite  is  a  participle.     If,  instead  of  saying  ille 
amavit,  the  Latins  said  ille  amatus,  whilst,  instead  of 
saying  ilia  amavit,  they  said  ilia  amata,  they  would  exactly 
use  the  grammar  of  the  Slavonians. 

3.  Hence,  as  one  class  of  languages,  at  least,  gives  us 
the  undoubted  fact  of  an  active  praeterite  being  identical 
with   a    passive    participle,   and   as    the   participle   and 
praeterite  in  question  are  nearly  identical,  we  have  a  fair 
reason  for  believing  that  the  d,  in  the   English  active 
praeterite,  is  the  d  of  the  participle,  which  in  its  turn,  is 
the  t  of  the  Latin  passive  participle. 

§  410.  The  following  extract  gives  Dr.  Trithen's  re- 
marks on  the  Slavonic  verb  in  his  own  words  : — 

"  A  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  the  grammar  of  all  the  Slavish 
languages,  consists  in  the  use  of  the  past  participle,  taken  in  an  active 
sense,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  the  prseterite.  This  participle 
generally  ends  in  /;  and  much  uncertainty  prevails  both  as  to  its  origin 
and  its  relations,  though  the  termination  has  been  compared  by  various 
philologists  with  similar  affixes  in  the  Sanscrit,  and  the  classical  lan- 
guages. 

"  In  the  Old  Slavish,  or  the  language  of  the  church,  there  are  three 
methods  of  expressing  the  past  tense :  one  of  them  consists  in  the  union  of 
the  verb  substantive  with  the  participle ;  as, 

Rek  esmf        ....     chital  esmi' 
Rek  esi'      ....         chital  esi' 
Rekesif          ....     chital  esf. 

"  In  the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Slavonic  dialect  we  have  the  verb 
substantive  placed  before  the  participle  : 


CONSTITUTION  OF  WEAK  PRJETERITE.  293 

Ya  sam  imao      .        .        .  mi'  smo  imali 

Ti  si  imao  vi'  ste  imali 

On  ye  imao         .        .        .  omi  su  imali. 

"  In  the  Polish  it  appears  as  a  suffix : 

Czytalem         .        .        .  czytalismy 

Czytales      .  .        .  czytaliscie 

Czytal      .         .  .  czytalie. 

"  And  in  the  Servian  it  follows  the  participle : 

Igrao  sam   .       ...         .  igrali  smo 

Igrao  si   .         .         .         .  igrali  ste 

Igrao  ye  igrali  su. 

"  The  ending  -ao,  of  igrao  and  imao,  stands  for  the  Russian  al,  as  in 
some  English  dialects  a'  is  used  for  all." 


PART  V. 

SYOTAX. 

CHAPTER    I. 

ON    SYNTAX   IN    GENERAL. 

§  411.  THE  word  syntax  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
syn  (with  or  together)  and  taxis  (arrangement).  It 
relates  to  the  arrangement,  or  putting  together,  of  words. 
Two  or  more  words  must  be  used  before  there  can  be  any 
application  of  syntax. 

There  is  to  me  a  father. — Here  we  have  a  circumlo- 
cution equivalent  to  I  have  a  father.  In  the  English 
language  the  circumlocution  is  unnatural.  In  the  Latin 
it  is  common.  To  determine  this,  is  a  matter  of  idiom 
rather  than  of  syntax. 

§  412.  In  the  English,  as  in  all  other  languages,  it  is 
convenient  to  notice  certain  so-called  figures  of  speech. 
They  always  furnish  convenient  modes  of  expression,  and 
sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  one  immediately  about  to 
be  noticed,  account  for  facts. 

§  413.  Personification. — The  ideas  of  apposition  and 
collectiveness  account  for  the  apparent  violations  of  the 
concord  of  number.  The  idea  of  personification  applies 
to  the  concord  of  gender.  A  masculine  or  feminine 


SYNTAX  IN   GENERAL.  295 

gender,  characteristic  of  persons,  may  be  substituted  for 
the  neuter  gender,  characteristic  of  things.  In  this  case 
the  term  is  said  to  be  personified. 

The  cities  who  aspired  to  liberty. — A  personification 
of  the  idea  expressed  by  cities  is  here  necessary  to  justify 
the  expression. 

It,  the  sign  of  the  neuter  gender,  as  applied  to  a  male 
or  female  child,  is  the  reverse  of  the  process. 

§  414.  Ellipsis  (from  the  Greek  elleipein  =  to  fall 
short),  or  a  falling-  short,  occurs  in  sentences  like  I  sent 
to  the  bookseller's.  Here  the  word  shop  or  house  is 
understood.  Expressions  like  to  go  on  all  fours,  and  to 
eat  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree,  are  reducible  to  ellipses. 

§  415.  Pleonasm  (from  the  Greek  pleonazein  =  to  be 
in  excess)  occurs  in  sentences  like  the  king,  he  reigns. 
Here  the  word  he  is  superabundant. 

My  banks,  they  are  furnished, — the  most  straitest 
sect, — these  are  pleonastic  expressions.  In  the  king,  he 
reigns,  the  word  king  is  in  the  same  predicament  as  in 
the  king,  God  bless  him. 

The  double  negative,  allowed  in  Greek  and  Anglo- 
Saxon,  but  not  admissible  in  English,  is  pleonastic. 

The  verb  do,  in  /  do  speak,  is  not  pleonastic.  In 
respect  to  the  sense  it  adds  intensity.  In  respect  to  the 
construction  it  is  not  in  apposition,  but  in  the  same  pre- 
dicament with  verbs  like  must  and  should,  as  in  /  must 
go,  &c. ;  i.  e.,  it  is  a  verb  followed  by  an  infinitive.  This 
we  know  from  its  power  in  those  languages  where  the  in- 
finitive has  a  characteristic  sign ;  as,  in  German, 

Die  Augen  thaten  ihm  winken. — GOETHE. 

Besides  this,  make  is  similarly  used  in  Old  English, 
— But  men  make  draw  the  branch  thereof,  and  beren 
him  to  be  graffed  at  Babyloyne. — Sir  J.  Mandeville. 

§  416.   The  figure  zeugma. —  They  wear  a  garment 


296  SYNTAX   IN  GENERAL. 

like  that  of  the  Scythians,  but  a  language  peculiar  to 
themselves. — The  verb,  naturally  applying  to  garment 
only,  is  here  used  to  govern  language.  This  is  called  in 
Greek,  zeugma  (junction). 

§  417.  My  paternal  home  was  made  desolate,  and  he 
himself  was  sacrificed. — The  sense  of  this  is  plain ;  he 
means  my  father.  Yet  no  such  substantive  as  father  has 
gone  before.  It  is  supplied,  however,  from  the  word 
paternal.  The  sense  indicated  by  paternal  gives  us  a 
subject  to  which  he  can  refer.  In  other  words,  the  word 
he  is  understood,  according  to  what  is  indicated,  rather 
than  according  to  what  is  expressed.  This  figure  in  Greek 
is  called  pros  to  semainomenon  (according  to  the  thing 
indicated). 

§  418. — Apposition, — Ccesar,  the  Roman  emperor,  in- 
vades Britain. — Here  the  words  Roman  emperor  explain, 
or  define,  the  word  Ccesar  ;  and  the  sentence,  filled  up, 
might  stand,  Ccesar,  that  is,  the  Roman  emperor,  &c. 
Again,  the  Word  Roman  emperor  might  be  wholly 
ejected ;  or,  if  not  ejected,  they  might  be  thrown  into  a 
parenthesis.  The  practical  bearing  of  this  fact  is  ex- 
hibited by  changing  the  form  of  the  sentence,  and  insert- 
ing the  conjunction  and.  In  this  case,  instead  of  one 
person,  two  are  spoken  of,  and  the  verb  invades  must  be 
changed  from  the  singular  to  the  plural. 

Now  the  words  Roman  emperor  are  said  to  be  in 
apposition  to  Ccesar.  They  constitute,  not  an  additional 
idea,  but  an  explanation  of  the  original  one.  They  are, 
as  it  were,  laid  alongside  (appositi)  of  the  word  Ccesar. 
Cases  of  doubtful  number,  wherein  two  substantives  pre- 
cede a  verb,  and  wherein  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  verb 
should  be  singular  Or  plural,  are  decided  by  determining 
whether  the  substantives  be  in  apposition  or  the  contrary. 
No .  matter  how  many  nouns  there  may  be,  as  long  as  it 


SYNTAX   IN   GENERAL.  297 

can  be  shown  that  they  are  in   apposition,  the  verb  is 
in  the  singular  number. 

§  419.  Collectiveness  as  opposed  to  plurality. — In 
sentences  like  the  meeting  was  large,  the  multitude  pur- 
sue pleasure,  meeting  and  multitude  are  each  collective 
nouns ;  that  is,  although  they  present  the  idea  of  a 
single  object,  that  object  consists  of  a  plurality  of  indi- 
viduals. Hence,  pursue  is  put  in  the  plural  number. 
To  say,  however,  the  meeting  wene  large  would  sound 
improper.  The  number  of  the  verb  that  shall  accom- 
pany a  collective  noun  depends  upon  whether  the  idea  of 
the  multiplicity  of  individuals,  or  that  of  the  unity  of  the 
aggregate,  shall  predominate. 

Sand  and  salt  and  a  mass  of  iron  is  easier  to  bear 
than  a  man  without  understanding-. — Let  sand  and  salt 
and  a  mass  of  iron  be  dealt  with  as  a  series  of  things  the 
aggregate  of  which  forms  a  mixture,  and  the  expression  is 
allowable. 

The  king  and  the  lords  and  commons  forms  an  ex- 
cellent frame  of  government. — Here  the  expression  is 
doubtful.  Substitute  with  for  the  first  and,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  as  to  the  propriety  of  the  singular  form  is. 

§  420.  The  reduction  of  complex  forms  to  simple  ones. 
— Take,  for  instance,  the  current  illustration,  viz.,  the- 
king-of-Saxontfs  army. — Here  the  assertion  is,  not  that 
the  army  belongs  to  Saxony,  but  that  it  belongs  to  the 
king  of  Saxony ;  which  words  must,  for  the  sake  of 
taking  a  true  view  of  the  construction,  be  dealt  with  as  a 
single  word  in  the  possessive  case.  Here  two  cases  are 
dealt  with  as  one ;  and  a  complex  term  is  treated  as  a 
single  word. 

The   same  reason   applies   to  phrases   like   the  two 
king  Williams.     If  we  say  the  two  kings  William,  we 
must  account  for  the  phrase  by  appositio'n. 
14* 


298  SYNTAX  IN   GENERAL. 

§  421.  True  notion  of  the  part  of  speech  in  use. — In 
he  is  gone,  the  word  gone  must  be  considered  as  equiva- 
lent to  absent ;  that  is,  as  an  adjective.  Otherwise  the 
expression  is  as  incorrect  as  the  expression  she  is  eloped. 
Strong  participles  are  adjectival  oftener  than  weak  ones : 
their  form  being  common  to  many  adjectives. 

True  notion  of  the  original  form. — In  the  phrase  / 
must  speak,  the  word  speak  in  an  infinitive.  In  the 
phrase  /  am  forced  to  speak,  the  word  speak  is  (in  the 
present  English)  an  infinitive  also.  In  one  case,  how- 
ever, it  is  preceded  by  to;  whilst  in  the  other,  the 
particle  to  is  absent.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the 
original  difference  of  form.  Speak — to  =  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  sprecan.  a  simple  infinitive  ;  to  speak,  or  speak  -}- 
to  =  the  Anglo-Saxon  to  sprecanne,  an  infinitive  in  the 
dative  case. 

§  422.  Convertibility. — In  the  English  language,  the 
greater  part  of  the  words  may,  as  far  as  their  form  is 
concerned,  be  one  part  of  speech  as  well  as  another. 
Thus  the  combinations  s-a-n-th,  or  f-r-e-n-k,  if  they 
existed  at  all,  might  exist  as  either  nouns  or  verbs,  as 
either  substantives  or  adjectives,  as  conjunctions,  ad- 
verbs, or  prepositions.  This  is  not  the  case  in  the 
Greek  languages.  There,  if  a  word  be  a  substantive,  it 
will  probably  end  in  -s  ;  if  an  infinitive  verb,  in  -ein,  &c. 
The  bearings  of  this  difference  between  languages  like 
the  English  and  languages  like  the  Greek  will  soon 
appear. 

At  present,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  a  word,  origi- 
nally one  part  of  speech  (e.g.,  a  noun),  may  become 
another  (e.  g.,  a  verb).  This  may  be  called  the  converti- 
bility of  words. 

There  is  an  etymological  convertibility,  and  a  syn- 
tactic convertibility ;  and  although,  in  some  cases,  the 


SYNTAX  IN  GENEKAL.  299 

line  of  demarcation  is  not  easily  drawn  between  them,  the 
distinction  is  intelligible  and  convenient. 

§  423.  Etymological  convertibility. — The  words  then 
and  them,  now  adverbs  or  conjunctions,  were  once  cases : 
in  other  words,  they  have  been  converted  from  one  part  of 
speech  to  another.  Or,  they  may  even  be  said  to  be  cases, 
at  the  present  moment ;  although  only  in  an  historical 
point  of  view.  For  the  practice  of  language,  they  are  not 
only  adverbs  or  conjunctions,  but  they  are  adverbs  or  con- 
junctions exclusively. 

§  424.  Syntactic  convertibility. — The  combination  to 
err,  is  at  this  moment  an  infinitive  verb.  Neverthe- 
less it  can  be  used  as  the  equivalent  to  the  substantive 
error. 

To  err  is  human  =  error  is  human.  Now  this  is  an 
instance  of  syntactic  conversion.  Of  the  two  meanings, 
there  is  no  doubt  as  to  which  is  the  primary  one ;  which 
primary  meaning  is  part  and  parcel  of  the  language  at 
this  moment. 

The  infinitive,  when  used  as  a  substantive,  can  be  used 
in  a  Singular  form  only. 

To  err  =  error  ;  but  we  have  no  such  form  as  to  errs 
=  errors.  Nor  is  it  wanted.  The  infinitive,  in  a  sub- 
stantival sense,  always  conveys  a  general  statement,  so 
that  even  when  singular,  it  has  a  plural  power ;  just  as 
man  is  mortal  =  men  are  mortal. 

§  425.  The  adjective  used  as  a  substantive. — Of  these, 
we  have  examples  in  expressions  like  the  blacks  of  Africa 
— the  bitters  and  sweets  of  life — all  fours  were  put  to  the 
ground.  These  are  true  instances  of  conversion,  and  are 
proved  to  be  so  by  the  fact  of  their  taking  a  plural 
form. 

Let  the  blind  lead  the  blind  is  not  an  instance  of 
conversion.  The  word  blind  in  both  instances  remains 


300  SYNTAX  IN  GENERAL. 

an  adjective,  and  is  shown  to  remain  so  by  its  being  unin- 
flected.  \ 

§  426.  Uninflected  parts  of  speech,  used  as  substan- 
tive.— When  King  Richard  III.  says,  none  of  your  ifs, 
he  uses  the  word  if  as  a  substantive  =  expressions  of 
doubt. 

So  in  the  expression  one  long  now,  the  word  now  = 
present  time. 

§  427.  The  convertibility  of  words  in  English  is  very 
great ;  and  it  is  so  because  the  structure  of  the  language 
favours  it.  As  few  words  have  any  peculiar  signs  expres- 
sive of  their  being  particular  parts  of  speech,  interchange 
is  easy,  and  conversion  follows  the  logical  association  of 
ideas  unimpeded. 

The  convertibility  of  words  is  in  the  inverse  ratio  to 
the  amount  of  their  inflection. 


SYNTAX  OF  SUBSTANTIVES.  301 


CHAPTER  II. 

SYNTAX    OF    SUBSTANTIVES. 

§  428.  THE  phenomena  of  convertibility  have  been 
already  explained. 

The  remaining  points  connected  with  the  syntax  of 
substantives,  are  chiefly  points  of  ellipsis. 

Ellipsis  of  substantives. — The  historical  view  of 
phrases,  like  Rundell  and  Bridge's,  St.  Paul's,  &c., 
shows  that  this  ellipsis  is  common  to  the  English  and  the 
other  Gothic  languages.  Furthermore,  it  shows  that  it  is 
met  with  in  languages  not  of  the  Gothic  stock ;  and, 
finally,  that  the  class  of  words  to  which  it  applies,  is, 
there  or  thereabouts,  the  same  generally. 

§  429.  The  following  phrases  are  referable  to  a  differ- 
ent class  of  relations — 

1.  Right  and  left — supply  hand.    This  is,  probably,  a 
real  ellipsis.     The  words  right  and  left,  have  not  yet  be- 
come true  substantives  ;  inasmuch  as  they  have  no  plural 
forms.     In  this  respect  they  stand  in  contrast  with  bitter 
and  sweet ;  inasmuch  as  we  can  say  he  has  tasted  both 
the  bitters  and  sweets  of  life.     Nevertheless,  the  expres- 
sion can  be  refined  on. 

2.  All  fours.     To  go  on  all  fours.     No   ellipsis. 
The  word  fours  is  a  true  substantive,  as  proved  by  its 
existence  as  a  plural. 


302  SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SYNTAX   OF    ADJECTIVES. 

§  430.  Pleonasm. — Pleonasm  can  take  place  with  ad- 
jectives only  in  the  expression  of  the  degrees  of  compari- 
son. Over  and  above  the  etymological  signs  of  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  degrees,  there  may  be  used  the 
superlative  words  more  and  most. 

And  this  pleonasm  really  occurs — 

The  more  serener  spirit. 
The  most  straitest  sect. 

These  are  instances  of  pleonasm  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  term. 

§  431.  Collocation. — As  a  general  rule,  the  adjective 
precedes  the  substantive — a  good  man,  not  a  man  good. 

When,  however,  the  adjective  is  qualified  by  either  the 
expression  of  its  degree,  or  accompanied  by  another  adjec- 
tive, it  may  follow  the  substantive — 

A  man  just  and  good. 

A  woman  wise  and  fair. 

A  hero  devoted  to  his  country. 

A  patriot  disinterested  to  a  great  degree. 

Single  pimple  adjectives  thus  placed  after  their  sub- 
stantive, belong  to  the  poetry  of  England,  and  especially 
to  the  ballad  poetry — sighs  profound — the  leaves  green. 

§  432.  Government. — The  only  adjective  that  governs 
a  case,  is  the  word  like.  In  the  expression,  this  is  like 


SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES.  303 

him,  &c.,  the  original  power  of  the  dative  remains.     This 
we  infer — 

1.  From  the  fact  that  in  most  languages  which  have 
inflections  to  a  sufficient  extent,  the  word  meaning  like 
governs  a  dative  case. 

2.  That  if  ever  we  use  in  English  any  preposition  at 
all  to  express  similitude,  it  is  the  preposition  to — like  to 
me,  like  to  death,  (fee. 

Expressions  like  full  of  meat,  good  for  John,  are  hy 
no  means  instances  of  the  government  of  adjectives  ;  the 
really  governing  words  being  the  prepositions  to  and  for 
respectively. 

§  433.  The  positive  degree  preceded  by  the  adjective 
more,  is  equivalent  to  the  comparative  form — e.  g.,  more 
wise  =  wiser. 

The  reasons  for  employing  one  expression  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  other,  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  particu- 
lar word  used. 

When  the  word  is  at  one  and  the  same  time  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin  and  monosyllabic,  there  is  no  doubt  about 
the  preference  to  be  given  to  the  form  in  -er.  Thus, 
wis-er  is  preferable  to  more  wise. 

When,  however,  the  word  is  compound,  or  trisyllabic, 
the  combination  with  the  word  more,  is  preferable. 

more  fruitful fruitfuller. 

more  villainous     ....     villanouser. 

Between  these  two  extremes  there  are  several  inter- 
mediate forms,  wherein  the  use  of  one  rather  than  another 
will  depend  upon  the  taste  of  the  writer.  The  question, 
however,  is  a  question  of  euphony,  rather  than  of  aught 
else.  It  is  also  illustrated  by  the  principle  of  not  multi- 
plying secondary  elements.  In  such  a  word  as  fruit-full- 
er, there  are  two  additions  to  the  root.  The  same  is  the 
case  with  the  superlative,  fruit-full-est, 


304  SYNTAX  OF   ADJECTIVES. 

§  434.  In  the  Chapter  on  the  Comparative  Degree  is 
indicated  a  refinement  upon  the  current  notions  as  to  the 
power  of  the  comparative  degree,  and  reasons  are  given 
for  believing  that  the  fundamental  notion  expressed  by  the 
comparative  inflexion  is  the  idea  of  comparison  or  contrast 
between  two  objects. 

In  this  case,  it  is  better  in  speaking  of  only  two 
objects  to  use  the  comparative  degree  rather  than  the 
superlative — even  when  we  use  the  definite  article  the. 
Thus— 

This  is  the  better  of  the  two 

is  preferable  to 

This  is  the  best  of  the  two. 

This  principle  is  capable  of  an  application  more  exten- 
sive than  our  habits  of  speaking  and  writing  will  verify. 
Thus  to  go  to  other  parts  of  speech,  we  should  logically 
say — 

Whether  of  the  two, 
rather  than 

Which  of  the  two. 
Either  the  father  or  the  son, 

but  not 

Either  the  father,  the  son,  or  the  daughter. 

This  statement  may  be  refined  on.  It  is  chiefly  made 
for  the  sake  of  giving  fresh  prominence  to  the  idea  of 
duality,  expressed  by  the  terminations  -er  and  -ter. 

§  435.  The  absence  of  inflection  simplifies  the  syntax 
of  adjectives.  Violations  of  concord  are  impossible.  We 
could  not  make  an  adjective  disagree  with  its  substantive 
if  we  wished. 


SYNTAX  OF  PKONOUNS.  305 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS. 

§  436.  Pleonasm  in  the  syntax  of  pronouns. — In  the 
following  sentences  the  words  in  italics  are  pleonastic : 

1.  The  king  he  is  just. 

2.  I  saw  her,  the  queen. 

3.  The  men,  they  were  there. 

4.  The  king,  his  crown. 

Of  these  forms,  the  first  is  more  common  than  the 
second  and  third,  and  the  fourth  more  common  than  the 
first. 

§  437.  The  fourth  has  another  element  of  importance. 
It  has  given  rise  to  the  absurd  notion  that  the  genitive 
case  in  -s  (father- s)  is  a  contraction  from  his  (father  his). 

To  say  nothing  about  the  inapplicability  of  this  rule  to 
feminine  genders,  and  plural  numbers,  the  whole  history 
of  the  Indo-Germanic  languages  is  against  it. 

1.  "We  cannot  reduce  the  queen's  majesty  to  the  queen 
his  majesty. 

2.  We  cannot  reduce  the  children's  bread  to  the  child- 
ren his  bread.. 

3.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forms  are  in  -es,  not  in  his. 

4.  The  word  his  itself  must  be  accounted  for ;  and 
that  cannot  be  done  by  assuming  it  to  be  he  -f  his. 

5.  The  -s  in  father's  is  the  -is  in  patris,  and  the  -05 
in  Trarepo?. 


306  SYNTAX   OF   PBOXOUXS. 

§  438.  The  preceding  examples  illustrate  an  apparent 
paradox,  viz.,  the  fact  of  pleonasm  and  ellipsis  being 
closely  allied.  The  king  he  is  just,  dealt  with  as  a  single 
sentence,  is  undoubtedly  pleonastic.  But  it  is  not  reces- 
sary  to  be  considered  as  a  mere  simple  sentence.  The 
king — may  represent  a  first  sentence  incomplete,  -whilst 
he  is  just  represents  a  second  sentence  in  full.  What  is 
pleonasm  in  a  single  sentence  is  ellipsis  in  a  doubb  one. 


TRUE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  307 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  TRUE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

§  439.  Personal  pronouns. — The  use  of  the  second 
person  plural  instead  of  the  second  singular  has  been 
noticed  already.  This  use  of  one  number  for  another  is 
current  throughout  the  Gothic  languages.  A  pronoun  so 
used  is  conveniently  called  the  pronomen  reverentice. 

§  440.  Dativus  ethicus. — In  the  phrase 

Rob  me  the  exchequer, — Henry  IV., 

the  me  is  expletive,  and  is  equivalent  to  for  me.  This  ex- 
pletive use  of  the  dative  is  conveniently  called  the  dativus 
ethicus. 

§  441.  The  reflected  personal  pronoun. — In  the  Eng- 
lish language  there  is  no  equivalent  to  the  Latin  se,  the 
German  sich,  and  the  Scandinavian  sik,  and  sig. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  word  self  is  used  to  a 
greater  extent  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

/  strike  me  is  awkward,  but  not  ambiguous. 

Thou  strikest  thee  is  awkward,  but  not  ambiguous. 

He  strikes  him  is  ambiguous  ;  inasmuch  as  him  may 
mean  either  the  person  who  strikes  or  some  one  else.  In 
order  to  be  clear  we  add  the  word  self  when  the  idea  is 
reflective.  He  strikes  himself  is,  at  once  idiomatic  and 
unequivocal. 

So  it  is  with  the  plural  persons. 

We  strike  us  is  awkward,  but  not  ambiguous. 


308  TRUE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

Ye  strike  you  is  the  same. 

They  strike  them  is  ambiguous. 

This  shows  the  value  of  a  reflective  pronoun  for  the 
third  person. 

As  a  general  rule,  therefore,  whenever  we  use  a  verb 
reflectively  we  use  the  word  self  in  combination  with  the 
personal  pronoun. 

Yet  this  was  not  always  the  case.  The  use  of  the 
simple  personal  pronoun  was  current  in  Anglo-Saxon,  and 
that,  not  only  for  the  first  two  persons,  but  for  the  third  as 
well. 

The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  either  poetical  expres- 
sions, or  imperative  moods. 

He  sat  him  down  at  a  pillar's  base. — BYRON. 
Sit  thee  down. 

§  442.  Reflective  neuters. — In  the  phrase  I  strike  me, 
the  verb  strike  is  transitive ;  in  other  words,  the  word 
me  expresses  the  object  of  an  action,  and  the  meaning  is 
different  from  the  meaning  of  the  simple  expression  1 
strike. 

In  the  phrase  I  fear  me  (used  by  Lord  Campbell  in 
his  lives  of  the  Chancellors),  the  verb  fear  is  intransitive 
or  neuter ;  in  other  words,  the  word  me  (unless,  indeed, 
fear  mean  terrify),  expresses  no  object  of  any  action  at 
all ;  whilst  the  meaning  is  the  same  as  in  the  simple  ex- 
pression I  fear. 

Here  the  reflective  pronoun  appears  out  of  place,  i.  e., 
after  a  neuter  or  intransitive  verb. 

Such  a  use,  however,  is  but  the  fragment  of  an  exten- 
sive system  of  reflective  verbs  thus  formed,  developed  in 
different  degrees  in  the  different  Grothic  languages ;  but 
in  all  more  than  in  the  English. 

§  443.  Equivocal  reflectives. — The  proper  place  of  the 
reflective  is  after  the  verb. 


TRUE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  309 

The  proper  place  of  the  governing  pronoun  is,  in  the 
indicative  and  subjunctive  moods,  before  the  verb. 

Hence  in  expressions  like  the  preceding  there  is  no 
doubt  as  to  the  power  of  the  pronoun. 

The  imperative  mood,  however,  sometimes  presents  a 
complication.  Here  the  governing  person  may  follow  the 
verb. 

Mount  ye  =  either  be  mounted,  or  mount  yourselves. 
In  phrases  like  this,  and  in  phrases 

Bunk  ye,  busk  ye,  my  bonny,  bonny  bride, 
Husk  ye,  busk  ye,  my  winsome  marrow, 

the  construction  is  ambiguous.  Ye  may  either  be  a  no- 
minative case  governing  the  verb  busk,  or  an  accusative 
case  governed  by  it. 

This  is  an  instance  of  what  may  be  called  the  equivocal 
reflective. 


310  THE  SYNTAX  OF 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON  THE  SYNTAX  OF  THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS,  AND  THE 
PRONOUNS  OF  THE  THIRD  PERSON. 

§  444.  As  his  and  tier  are  genitive  cases  (and  not 
adjectives),  there  is  no  need  of  explaining  such  combina- 
tions as  his  mother,  her  father,  inasmuch  as  no  concord  of 
gender  is  expected.  The  expressions  are  respectively- 
equivalent  to 

mater  ejus,  not  mater  sua  ; 
pater  ejus,    —  pater  suus. 

§  445.  It  has  been  stated  that  its  is  a  secondary 
genitive,  and  it  may  be  added,  that  it  is  of  late 
origin  in  the  language.  The  Anglo-Saxon  form  was 
his,  the  genitive  of  he  for  the  neuter  and  masculine 
equally.  Hence,  when,  in  the  old  writers,  we  meet  his, 
where  we  expect  its,  we  must  not  suppose  that  any  per- 
sonification takes  place,  but  simply  that  the  old  genitive 
common  to  the  two  genders  is  used  in  preference  to 
the  modern  one  limited  to  the  neuter,  and  irregularly 
formed. 

The  following  instances  are  the  latest  specimens  of  its 
use : 

"  The  apoplexy  is,  as  I  take  it,  a  kind  of  lethargy.  I  have  read  the 
cause  of  his  effects  in  Galen ;  it  is  a  kind  of  deafness." — 2  Henry  IV. 
i  2. 


THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS.        311 

"  If  the  salt  have  lost  his  savour,  wherewith  shall  it  be  seasoned  ?  It 
is  neither  fit  for  the  land,  nor  yet  for  the  dunghill ;  but  men  cast  it  out" 
— Luke  xiv.  35. 

"  Some  affirm  that  every  plant  has  his  particular  fly  or  caterpillar, 
which  it  breeds  and  feeds." — WALTON'S  Angler. 

"  This  rule  is  not  so  general,  but  that  it  admitteth  of  his  exceptions." 
— OAKEW. 


312  ON  THE  WORD  SELF. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  WORD  SELF. 

§  446.  THE  undoubted  constructions  of  the  word  self, 
in  the  present  state  of  the  cultivated  English,  are  three- 
fold. 

1.  Government. — In  my-self,  thy-self,  our-sclves,  and 
your-selves,  the  construction  is  that   of  a  common  sub- 
stantive  with   an   adjective   or   genitive   case.      My -self 
=  my  individuality,   and   is  similarly  construed  —  mea 
individualitas  (or  persona),  or   mei   individualitas  (or 
persona).    . 

2.  Apposition. — In  him-self  and  them-selves,  when  ac- 
cusative,   the   construction   is    that   of  a   substantive  in 
apposition   with    a   pronoun.      Himself  =  him,    the    in- 
dividual. 

3.  Composition. — It  is  only,  however,  when  himself 
and  themselves,  are  in  the  accusative  case,  that  the  con- 
struction  is    appositional.     When  they  are  used  as  no- 
minatives, it  must  be  explained  on  another  principle.     In 
phrases  like 

He  himself  was  present 
They  themselves  were  present, 

there  is  neither  apposition  nor  government ;  him  and 
them,  being  neither  related  to  my  and  thy,  so  as  to  be 
governed,  nor  yet  to  he  and  they,  so  as  to  form  an  ap- 
position. In  order  to  come  under  one  of  these  con- 
ditions, the  phrases  should  be  either  he  his  self  (they 


ON  THE   WORD   SELF.  313 

their  selves),  or  else  he  he  self  (they  they  selves).  In  this 
difficulty,  the  only  logical  view  that  can  be  taken  of  the 
matter,  is  to  consider  the  words  himself  and  themselves, 
not  as  two  words,  but  as  a  single  word  compounded ;  and 
even  then,  the  compound  will  be  of  an  irregular  kind ; 
inasmuch  as  the  inflectional  element  -m,  is  dealt  with  as 
part  and  parcel  of  the  root. 

§  447.  Her-self. — The  construction  here  is  ambiguous. 
It  is  one  of  the  preceding  constructions.  Which,  however 
it  is,  is  uncertain  ;  since  her  may  be  either  a  so-called 
genitive,  like  my,  or  an  accusative  like  him. 

Itself — is  also  ambiguous.  The  s  may  represent  the 
-5  in  its,  as  well  as  the  s-  in  self. 

This  inconsistency  is  as  old  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  stage 
of  the  English  language. 


314  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

ON    THE    POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS. 

§  448.  THE  possessive  pronouns  fall  into  two  classes. 
The  first  contains  the  forms  like  my  and  thy,  &c.  ;  the 
second,  those  like  mine  and  thine,  &c. 

My,  thy,  his  (as  in  his  book),  her,  its  (as  in  its  book), 
our,  your,  their,  are  conveniently  considered  as  the 
equivalents  to  the  Latin  forms  mei,  tui,  ejus,  nostrum, 
vestrum,  eorum. 

Mine,  thine,  his  (as  in  the  book  is  his),  hers,  ours, 
yours,  theirs  are  conveniently  considered  as  the  equi- 
valents to  the  Latin  forms  meus,  mea,  meum  ;  tuus,  tua, 
tuum  ;  suus,  sua,  suum  ;  noster,  nostra,  nostrum  ;  vester, 
vestra,  vestrum. 

§  449.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  construction 
of  my  and  mine.  We  cannot  say  this  is  mine  hat,  and 
we  cannot  say  this  hat  is  my.  Nevertheless,  this  differ- 
ence is  not  explained  by  any  change  of  construction 
from  that  of  adjectives  to  that  of  cases.  As  far  as  the 
syntax  is  concerned  the  construction  of  my  and  mine  is 
equally  that  of  an  adjective  agreeing  with  a  substantive, 
and  of  a  genitive  (or  possessive)  case  governed  by  a  sub- 
stantive. 

Now  a  common  genitive  case  can  be  used  in  two  ways  ; 
either  as  part  of  a  term,  or  as  a  whole  term  (*'.  e.,  absolutely). 
— 1.  As  part  of  a  term — this  is  John's  hat.  2.  As  a 
whole  term — this  hat  is  John's. 


POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS.  315 

And  a  common  adjective  can  be  used  in  two  ways ; 
either  as  part  of  a  term,  or  as  a  whole  term  (i.  e.  abso- 
lutely).— 1.  As  part  of  a  term — these  are  good  hats. 
2.  As  a  whole  term — these  hats  are  good. 

Now  whether  we  consider  my,  and  the  words  like  it, 
as  adjectives  or  cases,  they  possess  only  one  of  the  pro- 
perties just  illustrated,  i.  e.,  they  can  only  be  used  as  part 
of  a  term — this  is  my  hat ;  not  this  hat  is  my. 

And  whether  we  consider  mine,  and  the  words  like  it, 
as  adjectives  or  cases,  they  possess  only  one  of  the  pro- 
perties just  illustrated,  i.  e.,  they  can  only  be  used  as 
whole  terms,  or  absolutely — this  hat  is  mine  ;  not  this  is 
mine  hat. 

For  a  full  and  perfect  construction  whether  of  an  ad- 
jective or  a  genitive  case,  the  possessive  pronouns  present 
the  phenomenon  of  being,  singly,  incomplete,  but,  never- 
theless, complementary  to  each  other  when  taken  in  their 
two  forms. 

§  450.  In  the  absolute  construction  of  a  genitive  case, 
the  term  is  formed  by  the  single  word,  only  so  far  as  the 
expression  is  concerned.  A  substantive  is  always  under- 
stood from  what  has  preceded. —  This  discovery  is  New- 
ton's =  this  discovery  is  Newton's  discovery. 

The  same  with  adjectives. —  This  weather  is  fine  =  this 
weather  is  fine  weather. 

And  the  same  with  absolute  pronouns. —  This  hat  is 
mine  =  this  hat  is  my  hat  ;  and  this  is  a  hat  of  mine  = 
this  is  a  hat  of  my  hats. 

§  451.  In  respect  to  all  matters  of  syntax  considered 
exclusively,  it  is  so  thoroughly  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  a  word  be  an  adjective  or  a  genitive  case  that 
Wallis  considers  the  forms  in  Js,  like  father's,  not  as 
genitive  cases  but  as  adjectives.  Looking  to  the  logic 
of  the  question  alone  he  is  right,  and  looking  to  the 


316  POSSESSIVE   PKONOUNS. 

practical  syntax  of  the  question  he  is  right  also.     He  is 
only  wrong  on  the  etymological  side  of  the  question. 

"  Notnina  substantiva  apud  nos  nullutn  vel  generum  vel  casuum  dis- 
crimen  sortiuntur." — p.  76. 

"  Duo  sunt  adjectivorum  genera,  a  substantivis  immediate  descendentia, 
quae  semper  substantivis  suis  praeponuntur.  Priinum  quidem  adjectivum 
possessivum  libet  appellare.  Fit  autem  a  quovis  substantive,  sive  singulari 
sive  plurali,  addito  -is. — Ut  man's  nature,  the  nature  of  man,  natura 
humana  vel  hominis ;  men's  nature,  natura  humana  vel  hominuni ;  Virgil's 
poems,  the  poems  of  Virgil,  poemata  Virgilii  vel  Virgiliana." — p.  89. 


EELATIVE  PKONOUNS.  317 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

§  452.  IT  is  necessary  that  the  relative  be  in  the  same 
gender  as  the  antecedent — the  man  who — the  woman  who 
— the  thing  which. 

§.  453.  It  is  necessary  that  the  relative  be  in  the  same 
number  with  the  antecedent. 

§  454.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  relative  to  be  in  the 
same  case  with  its  antecedent. 

1.  John,  who  trusts  me,  comes  here. 

2.  John,  whom  I  trust,  comes  here. 

8.  John,  whose  confidence  I  possess,  comes  here. 
4.  I  trust  John  who  trusts  me. 

§  455.  The  reason  why  the  relative  must  agree  with 
its  antecedent  in  both  number  and  gender,  whilst  it  need 
not  agree  with  it  in  case,  is  found  in  the  following  observa- 
tions. 

1.  All   sentences   containing   a   relative   contain   two 
verbs — John  who  (1)  trusts  me  (2)  comes  here. 

2.  Two  verbs  express  two  actions — (1)  trust  (2)  come. 

3.  Whilst,  however,  the  actions  are  two  in  number, 
the  person  or  thing  which  does  or  suffers  them  is  single 
— John. 

3.  He  (she  or  it)  is  single  ex  vi  termini.  The  relative 
expresses  the  identity  between  the  subjects  (or  objects) 


318  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

of  the  two  actions.     Thus  who  =  John,  or  is  another  name 
for  John. 

5.  Things  and  persons  that  are  one  and  the  same,  are 
of  one  and  the  same  gender.     The  John  who  trusts  is 
necessarily  of  the  same  gender  with  the  John  who  conies. 

6.  Things  and  persons  that  are  one  and  the  same,  are 
of  one  and  the  same  number.     The  number  of  Johns  who 
trust,  is  the  same  as   the  number  of  Johns  who  come. 
Both  these  elements  of  concord  are  immutable. 

7.  But  a  third  element  of  concord  is  not  immutable. 
The  person  or  thing  that  is  an  agent  in  the  one  part  of  the 
sentence,  may  be  the  object  of  an  action  in  the  other.     The 
John  whom  I  trust  may  trust  me  also.     Hence 

a.  I  trust  John — John  the  object. 
6.  John  trusts  me — John  the  agent. 

§  456.  As  the  relative  is  only  the  antecedent  in 
another  form,  it  may  change  its  case  according  to  the 
construction. 

1.  I  trust  John — (2)  John  trusts  me. 

2.  I  trust  John— (2)  He  trusts  me. 

3.  I  trust  John — (2)  Who  trusts  me. 

4.  John  trusts  me — (2)  I  trust  John. 

5.  John  trusts  me — (2)  I  trust  him. 

6.  John  trusts  me — (2)  I  trust  whom. 

7.  John  trusts  me — (2)  Whom  I  trust 

8.  John— (2)  Whom  I  trust  trusts  me. 

§  457.  The  books  I  want  are  here. — This  is  a  speci- 
men of  a  true  ellipsis.  In  all  such  phrases  in  full,  there 
are  three  essential  elements. 

1.  The  first  proposition  ;  as  the  books  are  here. 

2.  The  second  proposition  ;  as  /  want. 

3.  The  word  which  connects  the  two  propositions,  and 
without  which,  they  naturally  make  separate,  independent, 
unconnected  statements. 


KELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  319 

Now,  although  true  and  unequivocal  ellipses  are 
scarce,  the  preceding  is  one  of  the  most  unequivocal 
kind — the  word  which  connects  the  two  propositions  being 
wanting. 

§  458.  When  there  are  two  words  in  a  clause,  each 
capable  of  being  an  antecedent,  the  relative  refers  to  the 
latter. 

1.  Solomon  the  son  of  David   that  slew   Goliah. — 
This  is  unexceptionable. 

2.  Solomon  the  son  of  David  who  built  the  temple. — 
This  is  exceptionable. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  defensible,  on  the  supposition  that 
Solomon-the-son-of- David  is  a  single  many-worded  name. 


320  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN. 


CHAPTER  X. 


ON    THE    INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUN. 

§  459.  QUESTIONS  are  of  two  sorts,  direct  and  oblique. 

Direct.— Who  is  he  ? 

Oblique. — Who  do  you  say  that  he  is  ? 

All  difficulties  about  the  cases  of  the  interrogative  pro- 
noun may  be  determined  by  framing  an  answer,  and  ob- 
serving the  case  of  the  word  with  which  the  interrogative 
coincides.  Whatever  be  the  case  of  this  word  will  also  be 
the  case  of  the  interrogative. 

DIRECT. 

Qu.   Who  is  this  ?— Ans.  I. 

Qu.    Whose  is  this  ? — Ans.  His. 

Qu.   Whom  do  you  seek  ? — Ans.  Him. 

OBLIQUE. 

Qu.   Who  do  you  say  that  it  is  ? — Ans.  He. 

Qu.   Whose  do  you  say  that  it  is  ? — Ans.  His. 

Qu.   Whom  do  you  say  that  they  seek  ? — Ans.  Him. 

Note. — The  answer  should  always  be  made  by  means 
of  a  pronoun,  as  by  so  doing  we  distinguish  the  accusative 
case  from  the  nominative. 

Note. — And,  if  necessary,  it  should  be  made  in  full. 
Thus  the  full  answer  to  whom  do  you  say  that  they  seek  1 
is,  I  say  that* they  seek  him. 

§  460.  Nevertheless,  such   expressions   as  whom  do 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN.  321 

they  say  that  it  is  ?  are  common,  especially  in  oblique 
questions. 

"  And  he  axed  him  and  seide,  whom  seien  the  people  that  I  am  ? — Thei 
answereden  and  seiden,  Jon  Baptist — and  he  seide  to  hem,  But  whom 
seien  ye  that  I  am  ?" — WIOLIF,  Luke  ix. 

"  Tell  me  in  sadness  whom  she  is  you  love." 

Romeo  and  Juliet,  i.  1. 

"  And  as  John  fulfilled  his  course,  he  said,  whom  think  ye  that  I  am  V 
— Acts  xiii  25. 

This  confusion,  however,  is  exceptionable. 


322  RECIPROCAL  CONSTRUCTION. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE    RECIPROCAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

§  461.  IN  all  sentences  containing  the  statement  of  a 
reciprocal  or  mutual  action  there  are  in  reality  two 
assertions,  viz.,  the  assertion  that  A.  strikes  (or  loves) 
B.,  and  the  assertion  that  B.  strikes  (or  loves)  A. ;  the 
action  forming  one,  the  reaction  another.  Hence,  if 
the  expressions  exactly  coincided  with  the  fact  signified, 
there  would  always  be  two  propositions.  This,  however, 
is  not  the  habit  of  language.  Hence  arises  a  more 
compendious  form  of  expression,  giving  origin  to  an 
ellipsis  of  a  peculiar  kind.  Phrases  like  Eteocles  and 
Polynices  killed  each  other  are  elliptical,  for  Eteocles  and 
Polynices  killed — each  the  other.  Here  the  second  pro- 
position expands  and  explains  the  first,  whilst  the  first 
supplies  the  verb  to  the  second.  Each,  however,  is 
elliptic. 

§  462.  This  is  the  syntax.  As  to  the  power  of  the 
words  each  and  one  in  the  expression  (each  other  and 
one  another),  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  in  the  com- 
mon practice  of  the  English  language  there  is  any  dis- 
tinction between  them.  A  distinction,  however,  if  it 
existed,  would  give  strength  to  our  language.  Where 
two  persons  performed  a  reciprocal  action  on  another, 
the  expression  might  be  one  another ;  as  Eteocles  and 
Polynices  killed  one  another.  Where  more  than  two 
persons  were  engaged  on  each  side  of  a  reciprocal  action, 


KECIPKOCAL  CONSTRUCTION.  323 

the  expression  might  be  each  other  ;  as,  the  ten  champions 
praised  each  other. 

This  amount  of  perspicuity  is  attained,  by  different 
processes,  in  the   French,    Spanish,   and    Scandinavian 


1.  French. — Us  (i.  e.,  A.  and  B.)  se  battaient — Pun 
Vautre.     Us  (A.  B.  C.)  se  battaient — les  uns  les  autres. 
In  Spanish,  uno  otro  =*Vun  Vautre,  and  unos  otros  =  les 
uns  les  autres. 

2.  Danish. — £Zmander  =  the    French   Vun   V  autre  ; 
whilst  hverandre  =  les  uns  les  autres. 


324  INDETERMINATE  PRONOUNS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

• 

THE   INDETERMINATE    PRONOUNS. 

§  463.  DIFFERENT  nations  have  different  methods  of 
expressing  indeterminate  propositions. 

Sometimes  it  is  by  the  use  of  the  passive  voice.  This 
is  the  common  method  in  Latin  and  Greek,  and  is  also 
current  in  English — dicitur,  Xeyerat,  it  is  said. 

Sometimes  the  verb  is  reflective — si  dice  =  it  says 
itself,  Italian. 

Sometimes  the  plural  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is 
used.  This  also  is  an  English  locution — they  say  =  the 
world  at  large  says. 

Finally,  the  use  of  some  word=77wm  is  a  common 
indeterminate  expression. 

The  word  man  has  an  indeterminate  sense  in  the 
Modern  German  ;  as  man,  sagt  =  they  say. 

The  word  man  was  also  used  indeterminately  in  the 
Old  English,  although  it  is  not  so  used  in  the  Modern. 

In  the  Old  English,  the  form  man  often  lost  the  -w, 
and  became  me. — "  Deutsche  Grammatik."  This  form  is 
also  extinct. 

§  464.  The  present  indeterminate  pronoun  is  one  ;  as 
one  says  =  they  say  =  it  is  said  =  man  sagt,  German  = 
on  dit.  French  =  si  dice,  Italian. 

It  has  been  stated,  that  the  indeterminate  pronoun 
one  has  no  etymological  connection  with  the  numeral 
one  ;  but  that  it  is  derived  from  the  French  on  =  homme 


INDETERMINATE   PEONOUNS.  325 

=  homo  =  man  ;  and  that  it  has  replaced  the  Old  English 
man  or  me. 

§  465.  Two  other  pronouns,  or,  to  speak  more  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  present  habit  of  the  English  language, 
one  pronoun,  and  one  adverb  of  pronominal  origin,  are  also 
used  indeterminately,  viz.,  it  and  there. 

§  466.  It  can  be  either  the  subject  or  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence, — it  is  this,  this  is  it,  I  am  it,  it  is  I.  When 
it  is  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the  verb  necessarily 
agrees  with  it,  and  can  be  of  the  singular  number  only ; 
no  matter  what  be  the  number  of  the  predicate — it  is  this, 
it  is  these. 

When  it  is  the  predicate  of  a  proposition,  the  number 
of  the  verb  depends  upon  the  number  of  the  subject. 
These  points  of  universal  syntax  are  mentioned  here  for 
the  sake  of  illustrating  some  anomalous  forms. 

§  467.  There  can  only  be  the  predicate  of  a  subject. 
It  differs  from  it  in  this  respect.  It  follows  also  that  it 
must  differ  from  it  in  never  affecting  the  number  of  the 
verb.  This  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  subject — 
there  is  this,  there  are  these. 

When  we  say  there  is  these,  the  analogy  between 
the  words  these  and  it  misleads  us  ;  the  expression  being 
illogical. 

Furthermore,  although  a  predicate,  there  always  stands 
in  the  beginning  of  propositions,  i.  e.,  in  the  place  of  the 
subject.  This  also  misleads. 

§  468.  Although  it,  when  the  subject,  being  itself  singu- 
lar, absolutely  requires  that  its  verb  should  be  singular 
also,  there  is  a  tendency  to  use  it  incorrectly,  and  to  treat 
it  as  a  plural.  Thus,  in  German,  when  the  predicate  is 
plural,  the  verb  joined  to  the  singular  form  es  ( =  it)  is 
plural — es  sind  menschen,  literally  translated  =  it  are 
men  ;  which,  though  bad  English,  is  good  German. 


326  THE   ARTICLES. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

THE    ARTICLES. 

§  469.  THE  rule  of  most  practical  importance  about 
the  articles  is  the  rule  that  determines  when  the  article 
shall  be  repeated  as  often  as  there  is  a  fresh  substantive, 
and  when  it  shall  not. 

When  two  or  more  substantives  following  each  other 
denote  the  same  object,  the  article  precedes  the  first  only. 
We  say,  the  secretary  and  treasurer  (or,  a  secretary  and 
treasurer),  when  the  two  offices  are  held  by  one  person. 

When  two  or  more  substantives  following  each  other 
denote  different  objects,  the  article  is  repeated,  and  pre- 
cedes each.  We  say,  the  (or  a)  secretary  and  the  (or  a) 
treasurer,  when  the  two  offices  are  held  by  different  per- 
sons. 

This  rule  is  much  neglected. 


THE  NUMERALS.  327 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

THE   NUMERALS. 

§  470.  THE  numeral  one  is  naturally  single.  All  the 
rest  are  naturally  plural. 

Nevertheless  such  expressions — one  two  ( =  one  collec- 
tion of  two\  two  threes  ( =  two  collections  of  three)  are  le- 
gitimate. These  are  so,  because  the  sense  of  the  word  is 
changed.  We  may  talk  of  several  ones  just  as  we  may 
talk  of  several  aces  ;  and  of  one  two  just  as  of  one  pair. 

Expressions  like  the  thousandth-and-first  are  incorrect. 
They  mean  neither  one  thing  nor  another :  1001st  being 
expressed  by  the  thousand-and-first,  and  1000th  +  1st 
being  expressed  by  the  thousandth  and  the  first. 

Here  it  may  be  noticed  that,  although  I  never  found 
it  to  do  so,  the  word  odd  is  capable  of  taking  an  ordinal 
form.  The  thousand-and-odd-th  is  as  good  an  expression 
as  the  thousand-and-eight-th. 

The  construction  of  phrases  like  the  thousand-and  first 
is  the  same  construction  as  we  find  in  the  king  of  Saxony's 
army. 

§  471.  It  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  we  say  the  two  first  or  the  first  two. 

The  captains  of  two  different  classes  at  school  should 
be  called  the  two  first  boys.  The  first  and  second  boys 
of  the  same  class  should  be  called  the^rs^  two  boys.  I 
believe  that  when  this  rule  is  attended  to,  more  is  due  to 
the  printer  than  to  the  author  :  such,  at  least,  is  the  case 
with  myself. 


328  VERBS  IN  GENERAL. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

ON   VERBS   IN    GENERAL. 

§  472.  FOR  the  purposes  of  syntax  it  is  necessary  to 
divide  verbs  into  the  five  following  divisions  :  transitive, 
intransitive,  auxiliary,  substantive,  and  impersonal. 

Transitive  verbs. — In  transitive  verbs  the  action  is 
never  a  simple  action.  It  always  affects  some  object  or 
other, — /  move  my  limbs  ;  I  strike  my  enemy.  The  pre- 
sence of  a  transitive  verb  implies  also  the  presence  of  a 
noun ;  which  noun  is  the  name  of  the  object  affected. 
A  transitive  verb,  unaccompanied  by  a  noun,  either  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  is  a  contradiction  in  terms.  The 
absence  of  the  nouns,  in  and  of  itself,  makes  it  intran- 
sitive. /  move  means,  simply,  /  am  in  a  state  of  moving. 
I  strike  means,  simply,  /  am  in  the  act  of  striking. 
Verbs  like  move  and  strike  are  naturally  transitive. 

Intransitive  verbs. — An  act  may  take  place,  and  yet 
no  object  be  affected  by  it.  To  hunger •,  to  thirst,  to  sleep, 
to  wake,  are  verbs  that  indicate  states  of  being,  rather 
than  actions  affecting  objects.  Verbs  like  hunger  and 
sleep  are  naturally  intransitive. 

Many  verbs,  naturally  transitive,  may  be  used  as  in- 
transitive,— e.  g.,  I  move,  I  strike,  &c. 

Many  verbs,  naturally  intransitive,  may  be  used  as 
transitives, — e.  g.,  I  walked  the  horse  =  I  made  the  horse 
walk. 

This  variation  in  the  use  of  one  and  the  same  verb 


VERBS  IN  GENERAL.  329 

is  of  much  importance  in  the  question  of  the  government 
of  verbs. 

A.  Transitive  verbs  are  naturally  followed  by  some 
noun  or  other  ;  and  that  noun  is  always  the  name  of  some- 
thing affected  by  them  as  an  object. 

B.  Intransitive  verbs  are  not  naturally  followed  by 
any  noun  at  all ;  and  when  they  are  so  followed,  the  noun 
is  never  the  name  of  anything  affected  by  them  as  an 
object. 

Nevertheless,  intransitive  verbs  may  be  followed  by 
nouns  denoting  the  manner,  degree,  or  instrumentality  of 
their  action, — I  walk  with  my  feet  =  incedo  pedibus. 

§  473.  The  auxiliary  verbs  will  be  noticed  fully  in 
Chapter  XXIII. 

§  474.  The  verb  substantive  has  this  peculiarity,  viz., 
that  for  all  purposes  of  syntax  it  is  no  verb  at  all.  /  speak 
may,  logically,  be  reduced  to  /  am  speaking ;  in  which 
case  it  is  only  the  part  of  a  verb.  Etymologically,  indeed, 
the  verb  substantive  is  a  verb  ;  inasmuch  as  it  is  inflected 
as  such :  but  for  the  purposes  of  construction,  it  is  a 
copula  only,  i.  e.,  it  merely  denotes  the  agreement  or  dis- 
agreement between  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

For  the  impersonal  verbs  see  Chapter  XXI. 


330  CONCORD   OF   VERBS. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

THE  CONCORD  OF  VERBS. 

§  475.  THE  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  per- 
son, /  walk,  not  /  walks  :  he  walks,  not  he  walk. 

It  must  also  agree  with  it  in  number, — we  walk:  not 
we  walks :  he  walks,  not  he  walk. 

Clear  as  these  rules  are,  they  require  some  expansion 
before  they  become  sufficient  to  solve  all  the  doubtful 
points  of  English  syntax  connected  with  the  concord  of  the 
verb. 

A.  It  is  /,  your  master,  who  command  you.     Query  ? 
would  it  is  I,  your  master,  who  commands  you,  be  cor- 
rect ?     This  is  an  example  of  a  disputed  point  of  concord 
in  respect  to  the  person  of  the  verb. 

B.  The  wages  of  sin  is  death.     Query  ?  would  the 
wages  of  sin  are  death  be  correct  ?     This  is  an  example 
of  a  disputed  point  of  concord  in  respect  to  the  number  of 
the  verb. 

§  476.  In  respect  to  the  concord  of  person  the  follow- 
ing rules  will  carry  us  through  a  portion  of  the  difficulties. 

Rule. — In  sentences  where  there  is  but  one  propo- 
sition, when  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  of  different  persons  are 
in  apposition,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first  of  them, — I, 
your  master,  command  you  (not  commands) :  your  mas- 
ter, I,  commands  you  (not  command). 

To  understand  the  nature  of  the  difficulty,  it  is  neces- 


CONCORD   OF  VERBS.  331 

sary  to  remember  that  subjects  may  be  extremely  com- 
plex as  well  as  perfectly  simple  ;  and  that  a  complex  sub- 
ject may  contain,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  a  noun  sub- 
stantive and  a  pronoun, — /,  the  keeper  ;  he,  the  merchant, 
&c. 

Now  all  noun-substantives  are  naturally  of  the  third 
person — John  speaks,  the  men  run,  the  commander  gives 
orders.  Consequently  the  verb  is  of  the  third  person 
also. 

But  the  pronoun  with  which  such  a  noun-substan- 
tive may  be  placed  in  apposition,  may  be  a  pronoun  of 
either  person,  the  first  or  second :  /  or  thou — /  the  com- 
mander— thou  the  commander. — In  this  case  the  con- 
struction requires  consideration.  With  which  does  the 
verb  agree?  with  the  substantive  which  requires  a  third 
person?  or  with  the  pronoun  which  requires  a  first  or 
second  ? 

Undoubtedly  the  idea  which  comes  first  is  the  leading 
idea  ;  and,  undoubtedly,  the  idea  which  explains,  qualifies, 
or  defines  it,  is  the  subordinate  idea  :  and,  undoubtedly,  it 
is  the  leading  idea  which  determines  the  construction  of 
the  verb.  We  may  illustrate  this  from  the  analogy  of  a 
similar  construction  in  respect  to  number — a  man  with  a 
horse  and  a  gig  meets  me  on  the  road.  Here  the  ideas 
are  three  ;  nevertheless  the  verb  is  singular.  No  addi- 
tion of  subordinate  elements  interferes  with  the  construc- 
tion that  is  determined  by  the  leading  idea.  In  the 
expression  /,  your  master,  the  ideas  are  two ;  viz.,  the 
idea  expressed  by  I,  and  the  idea  expressed  by  master. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  one  only  explains  or  defines  the 
other,  the  construction  is  the  same  as  if  the  idea  were 
single.  Your  master,  I,  is  in  the  same  condition.  The 

O  /        / 

general  statement  is  made  concerning  the  master,  and 
it  is  intended  to  say  what  he  does.  The  word  /  merely 


332  CONCORD  OF  VERBS. 

defines  the  expression  by  stating  who  the  master  is. 
Of  the  two  expressions  the  latter  is  the  awkwardest. 
The  construction,  however,  is  the  same  for  both. 

From  the  analysis  of  the  structure  of  complex  subjects 
of  the  kind  in  question,  combined  with  a  rule  concerning 
the  position  of  the  subject,  which  will  soon  be  laid  down,  I 
believe  that,  for  all  single  propositions,  the  foregoing  rule 
is  absolute. 

Rule. — In  all  single  propositions  the  verb  agrees  in 
person  with  the  noun  (whether  substantive  or  pronoun) 
which  comes  first. 

§  477.  But  the  expression  it  is  I  your  master,  who 
command  (or  commands]  you,  is  not  a  single  proposition. 
It  is  a  sentence  containing  two  propositions. 

1.  It  is  I. 

2.  Who  commands  you. 

Here  the  word  master  is,  so  to  say,  undistributed.  It 
may  belong  to  either  clause  of  the  sentence,  i.  e.,  the  whole 
sentence  may  be  divided  into 

Either — it  is  I  your  master — 

Or — your  master  who  commands  you. 

This  is  the  first  point  to  observe.  The  next  is  that 
the  verb  in  the  second  clause  (command  or  commands)  is 
governed,  not  by  either  the  personal  pronoun  or  the  sub- 
stantive, but  by  the  relative,  i.  e.,  in  the  particular  case 
before  us,  not  by  either  /  or  master,  but  by  who. 

And  this  brings  us  to  the  following  question — with 
which  of  the  two  antecedents  does  the  relative  agree  ? 
with  /  or  with  master  ? 

This  may  be  answered  by  the  two  following  rules  ; — 

Rule  1. — When    the    two    antecedents    are    in    the 


CONCORD   OF   VEEBS.  333 

same    proposition,    the    relative    agrees   with    the    first 
Thus— 

1.  It  is  /  your  master — 

2.  Who  command  you. 

/ 

Rule  2. — When  the  two  antecedents  are  in  different 
propositions,  the  relative  agrees  with  the  second. 
Thus— 

1.  It  is  /— 

2.  Your  master  who  commands  you. 

This,  however,  is  not  all.  What  determines  whether 
the  two  antecedents  shall  be  in  the  same  or  in  different 
propositions  ?  I  believe  that  the  following  rules  for  what 
may  be  called  the  distribution  of  the  substantive  antece- 
dent will  bear  criticism. 

Rule  1.  That  when  there  is  any  natural  connection 
between  the  substantive  antecedent  and  the  verb  governed 
by  the  relative,  the  antecedent  belongs  to  the  second 
clause.  Thus,  in  the  expression  just  quoted,  the  word 
master  is  logically  connected  with  the  word  command; 
and  this  fact  makes  the  expression,  It  is  I  your  master 
who  commands  you  the  better  of  the  two. 

Rule  2.  That  when  there  is  no  natural  connection  be- 
tween the  substantive  antecedent  and  the  verb  governed 
by  the  relative,  the  antecedent  belongs  to  the  first  clause. 
It  is  /,  John,  who  command  (not  commands)  you. 

To  recapitulate,  the  train  of  reasoning  has  been  as 
follows : — 

1.  The  person  of  the  second  verb  is  the  person  of  the 
relative. 

2.  The  person  of  the  relative  is  that  of  one  of  two 
antecedents. 

3.  Of  such  two  antecedents  the  relative  agrees  with 
the  one  which  stands  in  the  same  proposition  with  itself. 


334  CONCORD  OF  VERBS. 

4.  Which  position  is  determined  by  the  connection  or 
want  of  connection  between  the  substantive  antecedent 
and  the  verb  governed  by  the  relative. 

Respecting  the  person  of  the  verb  in  the  first  proposi- 
tion of  a  complex  sentence  there  is  no  doubt.  /,  your 
master,  who  commands  you  to  make  haste,  am  (not  is) 
in  a  hurry.  Here,  /  am  in  a  hurry  is  the  first 
proposition ;  who  commands  you  to  make  haste,  the 
second. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  why  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences consisting  of  two  propositions  is  open  to  an  amount 
of  latitude  which  is  not  admissible  in  the  construction  of 
single  propositions.  As  long  as  the  different  parts  of  a 
complex  idea  are  contained  within  the  limits  of  a  single 
proposition,  their  subordinate  character  is  easily  dis- 
cerned. When,  however,  they  amount  to  whole  proposi- 
tions, they  take  the  appearance  of  being  independent 
members  of  the  sentence. 

§  478.  The  concord  of  number. — It  is  believed  that 
the  following  three  rules  will  carry  us  through  all  diffi- 
culties of  the  kind  just  exhibited. 

Rule  1.  That  the  verb  agrees  with  the  subject,  and 
with  nothing  but  the  subject.  The  only  way  to  justify 
such  an  expression  as  the  wages  of  sin  is  death,  is  to  con- 
sider death  not  as  the  subject,  but  as  the  predicate ;  in 
other  words,  to  consider  the  construction  to  be,  death  is 
the  wages  of  sin. 

Rule  2.  That,  except  in  the  case  of  the  word  there,  the 
word  which  comes  first  is  generally  the  subject. 

Rule  3.  That  no  number  of  connected  singular  nouns 
can  govern  a  plural  verb,  unless  they  be  connected  by  a 
copulative  conjunction.  The  sun  and  moon  shine, — the 
sun  in  conjunction  with  the  moon  shines. 

§  479.  Plural  subjects  with  singular  predicates. — 


CONCORD  OF  VERBS.  335 

The  wages  of  sin  are  death.  —  Honest  men  are  the  salt  of 
the  earth. 

Singular  subjects  with  plural  predicates.  —  These  con- 
structions are  rarer  than  the  preceding  :  inasmuch  as  two 
or  more  persons  (or  things)  are  oftener  spoken  of  as  being 
equivalent  to  one,  than  one  person  (or  thing)  is  spoken  of 
as  being  equivalent  to  two  or  more. 

Sixpence  is  twelve  halfpennies. 
He  is  all  head  and  shoulders. 
Vulnera  totus  erat. 
Tu  es  deliciae  meae. 


'EitTop,  oT&p  (7v  /j.oi  eVo-l  iraryp  Kal  ir6rvia 
'HSe  Kao-iyvrjTos,  av  5e  /tot  fraAepbs  TropoKotTTjy. 


336  GOVERNMENT  OF  VERBS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON   THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    VERBS. 

§  480.  THE  government  of  verbs  is  of  two  sorts,  (1.) 
objective,  and  (2.)  modal. 

It  is  objective  where  the  noun  which  follows  the  verb 
is  the  name  of  some  object  affected  by  the  action  of  the 
verb, — as  he  strikes  me  :  he  wounds  the  enemy. 

It  is  modal  when  the  noun  which  follows  the  verb  is 
not  the  name  of  any  object  affected  by  the  verb,  but  the 
name  of  some  object  explaining  the  manner  in  which  the 
action  of  the  verb  takes  place,  the  instrument  with  which 
it  is  done,  the  end  for  which  it  is  done.  &c. 

The  government  of  all  transitive  verbs  is  necessarily 
objective.  It  may  also  be  modal, — /  strike  the  enemy 
with  the  sword  =ferio  hostem  gladio. 

The  government  of  all  intransitive  verbs  can  only  be 
modal, — /  walk  with  the  stick.  When  we  say,  /  walk  the 
horse,  the  word  walk  has  changed  its  meaning,  and  signi- 
fies make  to  walk,  and  is,  by  the  very  fact  of  its  being  fol- 
lowed by  the  name  of  an  object,  converted  from  an  intran- 
sitive into  a  transitive  verb. 

The  modal  construction  may  also  be  called  the  adver- 
bial construction  ;  because  the  effect  of  the  noun  is  akin 
to  that  of  an  adverb, — /  fight  with  bravery  =  I  fight 
bravely  :  he  walks  a  king-  =  he-walks  regally.  The  modal 
(or  adverbial)  construction,  sometimes  takes  the  appear- 
ance of  the  objective  :  inasmuch  as  intransitive  verbs  are 


GOVERNMENT  OF  VERBS.  337 

frequently  followed  by  a  substantive,  e.  g.,  to  sleep  the 
sleep  of  the  righteous.  Here,  nevertheless,  this  is  no 
proof  of  government.  For  a  verb  to  be  capable  of  go- 
verning an  objective  case,  it  must  be  a  verb  signifying  an 
action  affecting  an  object;  which  is  not  the  case  here. 
The  sentence  means,  to  sleep  as  the  righteous  sleep,  or 
according  to  the  sleep  of  the  righteous. 


338  THE  PARTICIPLES. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ON    THE    PARTICIPLES. 

§  481.  THE  present  participle,  or  the  participle  in  -ingj 
must  be  considered  in  respect  to  its  relations  with  the  sub- 
stantive in  -ing.  Dying-day  is,  probably,  no  more  a  par- 
ticiple than  morning-walk.  In  respect  to  the  syntax  of 
such  expressions  as  the  forthcoming,  I  consider  that  they 
are  either  participles  or  substantives. 

1.  When  substantives,  they  are  in  regimen,  and  govern 
a  genitive  case —  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  lady's  hold- 
ing up  her  train  7     Here  the  word  holding  =  the  act  of 
holding. —  Quid   est  significatio    elevationis    police   de 
parte  foemince. 

2.  When  participles,  they  are  in  apposition  or  concord, 
and  would,  if  inflected,  appear  in  the   same  case   with 
the  substantive,  or  pronoun,  preceding  them — What  is 
the  meaning  of  the  lady  holding  up  her  train  7   Here  the 
word  holding  =  in  the  act  of  holding,  and  answers  to  the 
Latin  famines,  elevantis. —  Quid  est  significatio  faemince 
elevantis  pallam  ? 

§  482.  The  past  participle  corresponds  not  with  the 
Greek  form  TUTrroyu-e^o?,  but  with  the  form  reru/x/xei/o?.  1 
am  beaten  is  essentially  a  combination,  expressive  not  of 
present  but  of  past  time,  just  like  the  Latin  sum  verbera- 
tus.  Its  Greek  equivalent  is  not  elfu  TVTTTO^VO^  =  / 
am  a  man  in  the  act  of  being  beaten^  but 


THE    PARTICIPLES.  339 

I  am  a  man  who  has  been  beaten.  It  is  past  in 
respect  to  the  action,  though  present  in  respect  to  the 
state  brought  about  by  the  action.  This  essentially  past 
element  in  the  so-called  present  expression,  /  am  beaten, 
will  be  again  referred  to. 


340  THE  MOODS. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

» 

ON    THE    MOODS. 

§  483.  THE  infinitive  mood  is  a  noun.  The  current 
rule  that  when  two  verbs  come  together  the  latter  is 
placed  in  the  infinitive  mood,  means  that  one  verb  can 
govern  another  only  hy  converting  it  into  a  noun — /  begin 
to  move  =  I  begin  the  act  of  moving.  Verbs,  as  verbs, 
can  only  come  together  in  the  way  of  apposition — /  irri- 
tate., I  beat,  I  talk  at  him,  I  call  him  names,  &c. 

§  484.  The  construction,  however,  of  English  infini- 
tives is  two  fold.  (1.)  Objective.  (2.)  Gerundial. 

When  one  verb  is  followed  by  another  without  the 
preposition  ,  to,  the  construction  must  be  considered  to 
have  grown  out  of  the  objective  case,  or  from  the  form 
in  -an. 

Such  is  the  case  with  the  following  words,  and,  pro- 
bably, with  others : 


I  may  go, 

not  I  may  to  go. 

I  might  go, 

—    I  might  to  go. 

I  can  move, 

—    I  can  to  move. 

I  could  move, 

—    I  could  to  move. 

I  will  speak, 

—    I  will  to  speak 

I  would  speak, 

—    I  would  to  speak. 

I  shall  wait, 

—    I  shall  to  wait 

I  should  wait, 

—    I  should  to  wait 

Let  me  go, 

—    Let  me  to  go. 

He  let  me  go, 

—    He  let  me  to  go. 

I  do  speak, 

—    I  do  to  speak. 

THE  MOODS.  341 

I  did  speak,     not    I  did  to  speak. 
I  dare  go,          —    I  dare  to  go. 
I  durst  go,        —    I  durst  to  go. 

This,  in  the  present  English,  is  the  rarer  of  the  two 
constructions. 

When  a  verb  is  followed  by  another,  preceded  by  the 
preposition  to,  the  construction  must  be  considered  to  have 
grown  out  of  the  so-called  gerund,  i.  e.,  the  form  in  -nne, 
i.  e.,  the  dative  case — /  begin  to  move.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  great  majority  of  English  verbs. 

§  485.  Imperatives  have  three  peculiarities.  (1.)  They 
can  only,  in  English,  be  used  in  the  second  person — go 
thou  on,  get  you  gone,  &c. :  (2.)  They  take  pronouns  after, 
instead  of  before  them :  (3.)  They  often  omit  the  pronoun 
altogether. 


842  THE   TEXSES. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

ON    THE    TENSES. 

§  486.  NOTWITHSTANDING  its  name,  the  present 
tense  in  English  does  not  express  a  strictly  present  action. 
It  rather  expresses  an  habitual  one.  He  &peaks  well— he 
is  a  good  speaker.  If  a  man  means  to  say  that  he  is  in 
the  act  of  speaking,  he  says  /  am  speaking. 

It  has  also,  especially  when  combined  with  a  subjunc- 
tive mood,  a  future  power — /  beat  you  (=  I  will  beat  you) 
if  you  dortt  leave  off. 

§  487.  The  English  praeterite  is  the  equivalent,  not  to 
the  Greek  perfect  but  the  Greek  aorist.  /  beat  =  erv^a 
not  rervcfxi.  The  true  perfect  is  expressed,  in  English,  by 
the  auxiliary  have  +  the  past  participle. 


SYNTAX  OF  PEKSONS  OF  VERBS.        343 


CHAPTER  XXL 

SYNTAX  OF  THE  PERSONS  OF  VERBS. 

0 

'  §  488.  The  concord  of  persons. — A  difficulty  that 
occurs  frequently  in  the  Latin  language  is  rare  in 
English.  In  expressions  like  ego  et  ille  followed  by  a 
verb,  there  arises  a  question  as  to  the  person  in  which 
that  verb  should  be  used.  Is  it  to  be  in  the  first  person 
in  order  to  agree  with  ego,  or  in  the  third  in  order  to 
ageee  with  ille  ?  For  the  sake  of  laying  down  a  rule  upon 
these  and  similar  points,  the  classical  grammarians  ar- 
range the  persons  (as  they  do  the  genders)  according  to 
their  dignity,  making  the  verb  (or  adjective  if  it  be  a 
question  of  gender)  agree  with  the  most  worthy.  In  re- 
spect to  persons,  the  first  is  more  worthy  than  the  second, 
and  the  second  more  worthy  than  the  third.  Hence,  the 
Latins  said — 

Ego  et  Balbus  sustulimus  manus. 
Tu  et  Balbus  sustulistis  manus. 

Now,  in  English,  the  plural  form  is  the  same  for  all 
three  persons.  Hence  we  say  land  you  are  friends,  you 
and  I  are  friends,  I  and  he  are  friends,  &c.,  so  that, 
for  the  practice  of  language,  the  question  as  to  the  rela- 
tive dignity  of  the  three  persons  is  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence. 

Nevertheless,  it  may  occur  even  in  English.  When- 
ever two  or  more  pronouns  of  different  persons,  and  of 
the  singular  number,  follow  each  other  disjunctively, 
the  question  of  concord  arises.  I  or  you, — you  or  he, 


344        SYNTAX  OF  PERSONS  OF  VERBS. 

— he  or  I.     I  believe  that,  in  these  cases,  the  rule  is  as 
follows  : — 

1.  Whenever  the  words  either  or  neither  precede  the 
pronouns,  the  verb  is  in  the  third  person.     Either  you  or 
I  is  in  the  wrong ;  neither  you  nor  I  is  in  the  wrong. 

2.  Whenever  the  disjunctive  is  simple  (i.  e.  unaccom- 
panied with  the  word  either  or  neither)  the  verb  agrees 
with  theirs*  of  the  two  pronouns. 

I  (or  he)  am  in  the  wrong. 
He  (or  /)  is  in  the  wrong. 
Thou  (or  he)  art  in  the  wrong. 
He  (or  thou)  is  in  the  wrong. 

Now,  provided  that  they  are  correct,  it  is  clear  that 
the  English  language  knows  nothing  about  the  relative 
degrees  of  dignity  between  these  three  pronouns  ;  since 
its  habit  is  to  make  the  verb  agree  with  the  one  which 
is  placed  first — whatever  may  be  the  person.  I  am 
strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  the  same  is  the  case  in 
Latin ;  in  which  case  (in  the  sentence  ego  et  Balbus  sus- 
tvlimus  manus)  sustulimus  agrees,  in  person,  with  ego, 
not  because  the  first  person  is  the  worthiest,  but  because 
it  comes  first  in  the  proposition. 

§  489.  In  the  Chapter  on  the  Impersonal  Verbs,  it  is 
stated  that  the  construction  of  me-thinks  is  peculiar. 

This  is  because  in  Anglo-Saxon  the  word  }>incan  = 
seem.  Hence  me-thinks  is  ^awe-rat  poi,  or  mihi  videtur, 
and  me  is  a  dative  case,  not  an  accusative. 

The  ]>encan  =  think,  was,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  a  different 
word. 


VOICES  OF  VEKBS.  345 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

ON   THE    VOICES    OP    VERBS. 

§  490.  IN  English  there  is  neither  a  passive  nor  a 
middle  voice. 

The  following  couplet  from  Dryden's  "  Mac  Flecnoe  " 
exhibits  a  construction  which  requires  explanation : — 

An  ancient  fabric,  raised  to  'inform  the  sight, 
There  stood  of  yore,  and  Barbican  it  hight. 

Here  the  word  hight  =  was  called,  and  seems  to  pre- 
sent an  instance  of  the  participle  being  used  in  a  passive 
sense  without  the  so-called  verb  substantive.  Yet  it  does 
no  such  thing.  The  word  is  no  participle  at  all ;  but  a 
simple  preterite.  Certain  verbs  are  naturally  either 
passive  or  active,  as  one  of  two  allied  meanings  may  pre- 
dominate. To  be  called  is  passive  ;  so  is,  to  be  beaten. 
But,  to  bear  as  a  name  is  active  ;  so  is,  to  take  a  beating. 
The  word,  hight,  is  of  the  same  class  of  verbs  with  the 
Latin  vapulo  ;  and  it  is  the  same  as  the  Latin  word,  duo. 
— Barbican  cluit  =  Barbican  audivit  =  Barbican  it 
hight. 


346  AUXILIAKY  VERBS. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

ON   THE    AUXILIARY    VERBS. 

§  491.  THE  auxiliary  verbs,  in  English,  play  a  most 
important  part  in  the  syntax  of  the  language.  They  may 
be  classified  upon  a  variety  of  principles.  The  following, 
however,  are  all  that  need  here  be  applied. 

A.  Classification  of  auxiliaries  according  to  their  in- 
flection  or    non-inflectional    powers. — Inflectional    aux- 
iliaries are  those  that  may  either  replace  or  be  replaced 
by  an  inflection.     Thus — /  am  struck  =  the  Latin  ferior, 
and  the  Greek  ruTrro/iat.     These  auxiliaries  are  in   the 
same  relation  to  verbs  that   prepositions  are   to   nouns. 
The  inflectional  auxiliaries  are, — 

1.  Have  ;  equivalent  to  an  inflection  in  the  way  of 
tense — /  have  bitten  =  mo-mordi. 

2.  Shall ;  ditto.     /  shall  call  =  voc-abo. 

3.  Will  ;  ditto.     /  will  call  =  voc-abo. 

4.  May ;  equivalent   to  an  inflection  in  the  way  of 
mood.     /  am  come  that  I  may  see  =  venio  ut  vid-eam. 

5.  Be  ;  equivalent  to  an  inflection  in  the  way  of  voice. 
To  be  beaten  =  verberari,  rvTrrea-Oat. 

6.  Am,  art,  is,  are  ;  ditto.     Also  equivalent  to  an  in- 
flection in  the  way  of  tense.     /  am  moving  --=  move-o. 

7.  Was,  were  ;  ditto,  ditto.    /  was  beaten  =  e-rv(f)0ijv. 
I  was  moving"  =  move-bam. 

Do,  can,  must,  and  let,  are  non-inflectional  auxiliaries. 

B.  Classification  of  auxiliaries   according  to  their 


AUXILIARY  VERBS.  347 

non-auxiliary  significations. — The  power  of  the  word 
have  in  the  combination  of  /  have  a  horse  is  clear  enough. 
It  means  possession.  The  power  of  the  same  word  in  the 
combination  /  have  been  is  not  so  clear ;  nevertheless  it  is 
a  power  which  has  grown  out  of  the  idea  of  possession. 
This  shows  that  the  power  of  a  verb  as  an  auxiliary  may 
be  a  modification  of  its  original  power  ;  i.e.,  of  the  power 
It  has  in  non-auxiliary  constructions.  Sometimes  the 
difference  is  very  little  :  the  word  let,  in  let  us  go,  has  its 
natural  sense  of  permission  unimpaired.  Sometimes  it  is 
lost  altogether.  Can  and  may  exist  only  as  auxiliaries. 

1.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  possession — 
have. 

2.  Auxiliaries  derived  from  the  idea  of  existence — be, 
is,  was. 

3.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  future  destina- 
tion, dependent  upon  circumstances  external  to  the  agent 
— shall.   There  are  etymological  reasons  for  believing  that 
shall  is  no  present  tense,  but  a  perfect. 

4.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  future  destina- 
tion,  dependent  upon   the   volition   of   the   agent — will. 
Shall  is  simply  predictive;  will  is  predictive   and  pro- 
missive  as  well. 

5.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  power,  dependent 
upon  circumstances  external  to  the  agent — may. 

6.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  power,  dependent 
upon  circumstances  internal  to  the  agent — can.     May  is 
simply  permissive ;  can  is  potential.     In  respect  to  the 
idea  of  power  residing  in  the  agent  being  the  cause  which 
determines  a  contingent  action,  can  is  in  the  same  relation 
to  may  as  will  is  to  shall. 

"  May  et  can,  cum  eorum  praeteritis  imperfectis,   might  et   could, 
potentiam  innuunt :  cum  hoc  tamen  discrimine :  may  et  m;c;ht  rel  de  jure 


348  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

vel  saltern  de  rei  possibilitate,  dicuntur,  at  can  et  could  de  viribus  agentis." 
— WALLIS,  p.  107. 

7.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  sufferance — let. 

8.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  necessity — 
must. 

u  Must  necessitatem  innuit  Debeo,  oportet,  necesse  est  urere,  /  must 
burn.  Aliquando  sed  rarius  in  praeterito  dicitur  must  (quasi  ex  musfd 
seu  musft  contractum).  Sic,  si  de  praeterito  dicatur,  he  must  (seu 
mustt)  be  burnt,  oportebat  uri  seu  necesse  habuit  ut  ureretur." — WALLIS, 
107. 

9.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  action — do. 

C.  Classification  of  auxiliary  verbs  in  respect  to  their 
mode   of  construction. — Auxiliary   verbs    combine    with 
others  in  three  ways. 

1.  With  participles. — a)  "With  the  present,  or  active, 
participle — /  am  speaking :  b)  With  the  past,  or  passive, 
participle — /  am  beaten,  I  have  beaten. 

2.  With  infinitives. — a)  With  the  objective  infinitive 
— /  can  speak  :  b)  With  the  gerundial  infinitive — /  have 
to  speak. 

3.  With   both  infinitives   and  participles. — /   shall 
have  done,  I  mean  to  have  done. 

D.  Auxiliary  verbs  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  effect. — Thus — have  makes  the  combination  in  which 
it  appears  equivalent  to  a  tense ;  be  to  a  passive  form ; 
may  to  a  sign  of  mood,  &c. 

This  sketch  of  the  different  lights  under  which  aux- 
iliary verbs  may  be  viewed,  has  been  written  for  the  sake 
of  illustrating,  rather  than  exhausting,  the  subject. 

§  492.  The  combination  of  the  auxiliary,  have,  with  the 
past  participle  requires  notice.  It  is,  here,  advisable  to 
make  the  following  classifications. 

1.  The  combination  with  the  participle  of  a  transitive 


AUXILIARY  VERBS.  349 

verb. — I  have  ridden  the  horse ;  thou  hast  broken  the 
sword  ;  he  has  smitten  the  enemy. 

2.  The  combination  with,  the  participle  of  an  intransi- 
tive verb, — /  have  waited  ;  thou  hast  hungered  ;  he  has 
slept. 

3.  The  combination  with  the  participle  of  the  verb  sub- 
stantive, /  have  been  ;  thou  hast  been  ;  he  has  been. 

It  is  by  examples  of  the  first  of  these  three  divisions 
that  the  true  construction  is  to  be  shown. 

For  an  object  of  any  sort  to  be  in  the  possession  of  a 
person,  it  must  previously  have  existed.  If  I  possess  a 
horse,  that  horse  must  have  had  a  previous  existence. 

Hence,  in  all  expressions  like  /  have  ridden  a  horse, 
there  are  two  ideas,  a  past  idea  in  the  participle,  and  a 
present  idea  in  the  word  denoting  possession. 

For  an  object  of  any  sort,  affected  in  a  particular 
manner,  to  be  in  the  possession  of  a  person,  it  must 
previously  have  been  affected  in  the"  manner  required. 
If  I  possess  a  horse  that  has  been  ridden,  the  riding 
must  have  taken  place  before  I  mention  the  fact  of  the 
ridden  horse  being  in  my  possession  ;  inasmuch  as  I  speak 
of  it  as  a  thing  already  done, — the  participle,  ridden, 
being  in  the  past  tense. 

/  have  ridden  a  horse  =  /  have  a  horse  ridden  =  I  have 
a  horse  as  a  ridden  horse,  or  (changing  the  gender  and 
dealing  with  the  word  horse  as  a  thing)  /  have  a  horse  as 
a  ridden  thing. 

In  this  case  the  syntax  is  of  the  usual  sort.  (1) 
Have  =  own  =  habeo  =  teneo  ;  (2)  horse  is  the  accusa- 
tive case  equum  ;  (3)  ridden  is  a  past  participle  agreeing 
either  with  horse,  or  with  a  word  in  apposition  with  it 
understood. 

Mark  the  words  in  italics.  The  word  ridden  does 
not  agree  with  horse,  since  it  is  of  the  neuter  gender. 


350  AUXILIARY  VEEBS. 

Neither  if  we  said  I  have  ridden  the  horses,  would  it  agree 
with  horses  ;  since  it  is  of  the  singular  number. 

The  true  construction  is  arrived  at  by  supplying  the 
word  thing.  I  have  a  horse  as  a  ridden  thing-  =  habeo 
equum  equitatum  (neuter).  Here  the  construction  is  the 
same  as  triste  lupus  stabulis. 

I  have  horses  as  a  ridden  thing  =  habeo  equos  equita- 
tum (singular,  neuter).  Here  the  construction  is — 

"  Triste maturis  frugibus  imbres, 

Arboribus  vend,  nobis  Amaryllidos  irae." 

or  in  Greek — 

Aeiv&j'  yvvaiQv  of  8t  wSivwv  yovai 

The  classical  writers  supply  instances  of  this  use  of 
have.  Compertum  habeo,  milites,  verba  viris  virtutem 
non  addere  =  /  have  discovered  =  I  am  in  possession  of 
the  discovery.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  satis  de  Caesare  hoc 
dictum  habeo. 

The  combination  of  have  with  an  intransitive  verb  is 
irreducible  to  the  idea  of  possession  :  indeed,  it  is  illogical. 
In  1  have  waited,  we  cannot  make  the  idea  expressed  by 
the  word  waited  the  object  of  the  verb  have  or  possess. 
The  expression  has  become  a  part  of  language  by  means 
of  the  extension  of  a  false  analogy.  It  is  an  instance  of  an 
illegitimate  imitation. 

The  combination  of  have  with  been  is  more  illogical 
still,  and  is  a  stronger  instance  of  the  influence  of  an 
illegitimate  imitation.  In  Grerman  and  Italian,  where 
even  intransitive  verbs  are  combined  with  the  equivalents 
to  the  English  have  (  haben,  and  avere),  the  verb  sub- 
stantive is  not  so  combined  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  combina- 
tions are 

Italian ;  io  sono  stato  =>  I  am  been. 
German ;  ich  bin  geioesen  =  ditto. 

which  is  logical. 


AUXILIARY  VERBS.  351 

§  493.  /  am  to  speak. — Three  facts  explain  this 
idiom. 

1.  The  idea  of  direction  towards  an  object  conveyed 
by  the  dative  case,  and  by  combinations  equivalent  to  it. 

2.  The  extent  to  which  the  ideas  of  necessity,  obliga- 
tion, or  intention  are  connected  with  the  idea  of  something 
that  has  to  be  done,  or  something"  towards  which  some 
action  has  a  tendency. 

3.  The  fact  that  expressions  like  the  one  in  question 
historically  represent  an  original  dative  case,  or  its  equi- 
valent ;  since  to  speak  grows  out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  form 
to  sprecanne,  which,  although  called  a  gerund,  is  really  a 
dative  case  of  the  infinitive  mood.     . 

When  Johnson  thought  that,  in  the  phrase  he  is  to 
blame,  the  word  blame  was  a  noun,  if  he  meant  a  noun 
in  the  way  that  culpa  is  a  noun,  his  view  was  wrong.  But 
if  he  meant  a  noun  in  the  way  that  culpare,  ad  culpandum, 
are  nouns,  it  was  right. 

§  494.  /  am  to  blame. — This  idiom  is  one  degree 
more  complex  than  the  previous  one;  since  /  am  to 
blame  =  /  am  to  be  blamed.  As  early,  however,  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period  the  gerunds  were  liable  to  be  used  in 
a  passive  sense  :  he  is  to  lujigenne  =  not  he  is  to  love,  but 
he  is  to  be  loved. 

The  principle  of  this  confusion  may  be  discovered  by 
considering  that  an  object  to  be  blamed,  is  an  object  for 
some  one  to  blame,  an  object  to  be  loved  is  an  object  for 
some  one  to  love. 

§  495.  /  am  beaten. — This  is  a  present  combination, 
and  it  is  present  on  the  strength  of  the  verb  am,  not 
on  the  strength  of  the  participle  beaten,  which  is  prse- 
terite. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  expedients  on  the 
part  of  the  different  languages  of  the  Gothic  stock. 


352 


AUXILIARY  VERBS. 


since  the  loss  of  the  proper  passive  form  of  the  Moe so- 
Gothic. 


Language 

LATIN  datur, 

LATIN  datus  est. 

Mceso-  Gothic  . 

gibada, 

ist.  vas,  varth  gibans. 

Old  H'igh  German      . 

.    1st,  wirdit  kepan, 

was,  warth  kepan. 

Notker   . 

wirt  keben, 

ist  keben. 

^Middle  High  German 

.    wirt  geben, 

ist  geben. 

New  High  German. 

wird  gegeben, 

ist  gegeben  worden. 

Old  Saxon 

.    is,  wirtheth  gebhan, 

was,  warth  gebhan. 

Middle  Dutch 

es,  blift  ghegheven, 

waert,  blef  ghegeven. 

New  Dutch 

.     wordt  gegeven, 

es  gegeven  worden. 

Old  Frisian  . 

werth  ejeven, 

is  ejevea 

A  nglo-Saxon 

.    weorded  gifen, 

is  gifen. 

English 

is  given, 

has  been  given. 

Old  Norse 

.     er  gefinn, 

hefr  verit  gefinn. 

Swedish  . 

gifves, 

bar  varit  gifven. 

Danish 

.    bliver,  vorder  given, 

har  varet  given. 

"  Deutsche  Gramnmtik,  iv.  19.* 


SYNTAX  OF  ADVERBS. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

THE    SYNTAX    OF    ADVERBS. 

§  496.  THE  syntax  of  the  adverb  is  simpler  than  that 
of  any  other  part  of  speech,  excepting,  perhaps,  that  of  the 
adjective. 

Adverbs  have  no  concord. 

Neither  have  they  any  government.  They  seem,  in- 
deed, to  have  it,  when  they  are  in  the  comparative  or 
superlative  degree ;  but  it  is  merely  apparent.  In  this 
is  better  than  that,  the  word  that  is  governed  neither  by 
better  nor  by  than.  It  is  not  governed  at  all.  It  is 
a  nominative  case  ;  the  ^subject  of  a  separate  proposi- 
tion. This  is  better  (i.  e.,  more  good)  than  that  is  good. 
Even  if  we  admit  such  an  expression  as  he  is  stronger 
than  me  to  be  good  English,  there  is  no  adverbial  govern- 
ment. Than,  if  it  govern  me  at  all,  governs  it  as  a  pre- 
position. 

The  position  of  an  adverb  is,  in  respect  to  matters  of 
syntax,  pre-eminently  parenthetic ;  i.  e.,  it  may  be  omitted 
without  injuring  the  construction.  He  is  fighting — now  ; 
he  was  fighting — then;  he  fights — bravely  ;  I  am  almost 
— tired,  &c. 

§  497.  By  referring  to  the  Chapter  on  the  Adverbs, 
we  shall  find  that  the  neuter  adjective  is  frequently  con- 
verted into  an  adverb  by  deflection.  As  any  neuter 
adjective  may  be  so  deflected,  we  may  justify  such 
expressions  as  full  (for  fully)  as  conspicuous  (for  con- 


354  SYNTAX  OF  ADVERBS. 

spicuously),  and  peculiar  (for  peculiarly)  bad  grace,  &c. 
We  are  not,  however,  bound  to  imitate  everything  that  we 
can  justify. 

§  498.  The  termination  -ly  was  originally  adjectival. 
At  present  it  is  a  derivational  syllable  by  which  we 
can  convert  an  adjective  into  an  adverb :  brave,  brave  ly. 
When,  however,  the  adjective  ends  in  -ly  already,  the 
formation  is  awkward.  /  eat  my  daily  bread  is  unex- 
ceptionable English  ;  /  eat  my  bread  daily  is  exception- 
able. One  of  two  things  must  here  take  place :  the 
two  syllables  ly  are  packed  into  one  (the  full  expression 
being  dai-li-ly),  or  else  the  construction  is  that  of  a  neuter 
adjective  deflected. 

Adverbs  are  convertible.  The  then  men  =  ol  vvv  ftpb- 
TOL,  &c.  This  will  be  seen  more  clearly  in  the  Chapter  on 
Conjunctions. 

§  499.  It  has  been  remarked  that  in  expressions  like 
he  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  righteous,  the  construction  is 
adverbial.  So  it  is  in  expressions  like  he  walked  a  mile, 
it  weighs  a  pound.  The  ideas  expressed  by  mile  and 
pound  are  not  the  names  of  anything  that  serves  as 
either  object  or  instrument  to  the  verb.  They  only 
denote  the  manner  of  the  action,  and  define  the  meaning 
of  the  verb. 

§  500.  From  whence,  from  thence. — This  is  an  expres- 
sion which,  if  it  have  not  taken  root  in  our  language, 
is  likely  to  do  so.  It  is  an  instance  of  excess  of 
expression  in  the  way  of  syntax ;  the  -ce  denoting  direc- 
tion from  a  place,  and  the  preposition  doing  the  same. 
It  is  not  so  important  to  determine  what  this  construc- 
tion is,  as  to  suggest  what  it  is  not.  It  is  not  an 
instance  of  an  adverb  governed  by  a  preposition.  If 
the  two  words  be  dealt  with  as  logically  separate, 
whence  (or  thetice}  must  be  a  noun  =  which  place  (or  that 


SYNTAX  OF  ADVERBS.  355 

place) ;  just  as  from  then  till  now  =from  that  time  to 
this.  But  if  (which  is  the  better  view)  the  two  words  be 
dealt  with  as  one  (i.  e.,  as  an  improper  compound)  the  pre- 
position from  has  lost  its  natural  power,  and  become  the 
element  of  an  adverb. 


356  ON  PREPOSITIONS. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

ON   PREPOSITIONS. 

§  501.  ALL  prepositions  govern  an  oblique  case.  If  a 
word  ceases  to  do  this,  it  ceases  to  be  a  preposition.  In 
the  first  of  the  two  following  sentences  the  word  up  is  a 
preposition,  in  the  second  an  adverb. 

1.  /  climbed  up  the  tree. 

2.  /  climbed  np. 

All  prepositions  in  English,  precede  the  noun  which 
they  govern.  /  climbed  up  the  tree,  never  /  climbed  the 
tree  up.  This  is  a  matter  not  of  government,  but  of  col- 
location. It  is  the  case  in  most  languages ;  and,  from  the 
frequency  of  its  occurrence,  the  term  pre-position  (or  pre- 
fix) has  originated.  Nevertheless,  it  is  by  no  means  a 
philological  necessity.  In  many  languages  the  preposi- 
tions are  post-positive,  following  their  noun. 

§  502.  No  preposition,  in  the  present  English,  governs 
a  genitive  case.  This  remark  is  made,  because  expres- 
sions like  the  part  of  the  body  =  pars  corporis, — a  piece 
of  the  bread  =  portio  panis,  make  it  appear  as  if  the  pre- 
position of  did  so.  The  true  expression  is,  that  the  pre- 
position of,  followed  by  an  objective  case  is  equivalent  in 
many  instances,  to  the  genitive  case  of  the  classical  lan- 
guages. 


ON  CONJUNCTIONS.  357 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

ON    CONJUNCTIONS. 

§  503.  A  CONJUNCTION  is  a  part  of  speech  which  con- 
nects propositions, — the  day  is  bright,  is  one  proposition. 
The  sun  shines,  is  another.  The  day  is  bright  because 
the  sun  shines  is  a  pair  of  propositions  connected  by  the 
conjunction,  because. 

From  this  it  follows,  that  whenever  there  is  a  conjunc- 
tion, there  are  two  subjects,  two  copulas,  and  two  predi- 
cates :  i.  e.,  two  propositions  in  all  their  parts. 

But  this  may  be  expressed  compendiously.  The  sun 
shines,  and  the  moon  shines  may  be  expressed  by  the  sun 
and  moon  shine. 

Nevertheless,  however  compendious  may  be  the  ex- 
pression, there  are  always  two  propositions  wherever  there 
is  one  conjunction.  A  part  of  speech  that  merely  com- 
bines two  words  is  a  preposition, — the  sun  along  with  the 
moon  shines. 

It  is  highly  important  to  remember  that  conjunctions 
connect  propositions. 

It  is  also  highly  important  to  remember  that  many 
double  propositions  may  be  expressed  so  compendiously  as 
to  look  like  one.  When  this  takes  place,  and  any  ques- 
tion arises  as  to  the  construction,  they  must  be  exhibited 
in  their  fully  expanded  form,  i.  e.,  the  second  subject,  the 
second  predicate,  and  the  second  copula  must  be  supplied. 
This  can  always  be  done  from  the  first  proposition, — 


358  ON  CONJUNCTIONS. 

he  likes  you  better  than  me  =  he  likes  you  better  than 
he  likes  me.  The  compendious  expression  of  the  second 
proposition  is  the  first  point  of  note  in  the  syntax  of  con- 
junctions. 

§  504.  The  second  point  in  the  syntax  of  conjunctions 
is  the  fact  of  their  great  convertibility.  Most  conjunc- 
tions have  been  developed  out  of  some  other  part  of 
speech. 

The  conjunction  of  comparison,  than,  is  derived  from 
the  adverb  of  time,  then :  which  is  derived  from  the  accu- 
sative singular  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun. 

The  conjunction,  that,  is  derived  also  from  a  demon- 
strative pronoun. 

The  conjunction,  therefore,  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun 
+  a  preposition. 

The  conjunction,  because,  is  a  substantive  governed  by 
a  preposition. 

One  and  the  same  word,  in  one  and  the  same  sen- 
tence, may  be  a  conjunction  or  preposition,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

All  fled  but  John. — If  this  mean  all  fled  except  John, 
the  word  but  is  a  preposition,  the  word  John  is  an  accu- 
sative case,  and  the  proposition  is  single.  If  instead  of 
John,  we  had  a  personal  pronoun,  we  should  say  all  fled 
but  him. 

All  fled  but  John. — If  this  mean  all  fled  but  John 
did  not  fly,  the  word  but  is  a  conjunction,  the  word  John 
is  a  nominative  case,  and  the  propositions  are  two  in  num- 
ber. If,  instead  of  John,  we  had  a  personal  pronoun,  we 
should  say,  all  fled  but  he. 

From  the  fact  of  the  great  convertibility  of  conjunc- 
tions it  is  often  necessary  to  determine  whether  a  word 
be  a  conjunction  or  not.  If  it  be  a  conjunction,  it  cannot 
govern  a  case.  If  it  govern  a  case  it  is  no  conjunction 


ON  CONJUNCTIONS.  359 

but  a  preposition.  A  conjunction  cannot  govern  a  case, 
for  the  following  reasons, — the  word  that  follows  it  must 
be  the  subject  of  the  second  proposition,  and  as  such,  a 
nominative  case. 

§  505.  The  third  point  to  determine  in  the  syntax  of 
conjunctions  is  the  certainty  or  uncertainty  in  the  mind  of 
the  speaker  as  to  the  facts  expressed  by  the  propositions 
which  they  serve  to  connect. 

1.  Each  proposition  may  contain  a  certain,  definite, 
absolute  fact — the  day  is  clear  because  the  sun  shines. 
Here  there  is  neither  doubt  nor  contingency  of  either  the 
day  being  clear,  or  of  the  sun  shining. 

Of  two  propositions  one  may  be  the  condition  of  the 
other — the  day  will  be  clear  if  the  sun  shine.  Here,  al- 
though it  is  certain  that  if  the  sun  shine  the  day  will  be 
clear,  there  is  no  certainty  of  the  sun  shining.  Of  the 
two  propositions  one  only  embodies  a  certain  fact,  and  that 
is  certain  only  conditionally. 

Now  an  action,  wherein  there  enters  any  notion  of  un- 
certainty, or  indefinitude,  and  is  at  the  same  time  connect- 
ed with  another  action,  is  expressed,  not  by  the  indicative 
mood,  but  by  the  subjunctive.  If  the  sun  shine  (not 
shines)  the  day  will  be  clear. 

Simple  uncertainty  will  not  constitute  a  subjunctive 
construction, — /  am,  perhaps,  in  the  wrong. 

Neither  will  simple  connection. — /  am  wrong,  because 
you  are  right. 

But,  the  two  combined  constitute  the  construction  in 
question, — if  I  be  wrong,  you  are  right. 

Now,  a  conjunction  that  connects  two  certain  proposi- 
tions may  be  said  to  govern  an  indicative  mood. 

And  a  conjunction  that  connects  an  uncertain  proposi- 
tion with  a  certain  one,  may  be  said  to  govern  a  subjunc- 
tive mood. 


360  ON  CONJUNCTIONS. 

The  government  of  mood  is  the  only  form  of  govern- 
ment of  which  conjunctions  are  capable. 

§  506.  Previous  to  the  question  of  the  government 
of  conjunctions  in  the  way  of  mood,  it  is  necessary  to 
notice  certain  points  of  agreement  between  them  and 
the  relative  pronouns ;  inasmuch  as,  in  many  cases, 
the  relative  pronoun  exerts  the  same  government,  in 
the  way  of  determining  the  mood  of  the  verb,  as  the  con- 
junction. 

Between  the  relative  pronouns  and  conjunctions  in 
general  there  is  this  point  of  connection, — both  join 
propositions.  Wherever  there  is  a  relative,  there  is 
a  second  proposition.  So  there  is  wherever  there  is  a 
conjunction. 

Between  certain  relative  pronouns  and  those  particular 
conjunctions  that  govern  a  subjunctive  mood  there  is  also 
a  point  of  connection.  Both  suggest  an  element  of  un- 
certainty or  indefinitude.  This  the  relative  pronouns  do, 
through  the  logical  elements  common  to  them  and  to  the 
interrogatives :  these  latter  essentially  suggesting  the 
idea  of  doubt.  Wherever  the  person,  or  thing,  connected 
with  an  action,  and  expressed  by  a  relative  is  indefinite, 
there  is  room  for  the  use  of  a  subjunctive  mood.  Thus — 
"he  that  troubled  you  shall  bear  his  judgment,  whoso- 
ever he  be" 

§  507.  By  considering  the  nature  of  such  words  as 
when,  their  origin  as  relatives  on  the  one  hand,  and  their 
conjunctional  character  on  the  other  hand,  we  are  pre- 
pared for  finding  a  relative  element  in  words  like  till, 
until,  before,  as  long  as,  &c.  These  can  all  be  expanded 
into  expressions  like  until  the  time  when,  during  the  time 
when,  &c.  Hence,  in  an  expression  like  seek  out  his 
wickedness  till  thou  find  (not  Jindesf)  none,  the  principle 


ON  CONJUNCTIONS.  361 

of  the  construction  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  he  that  trou- 
bled you,  (fee.,  or  vice  versa* 

§  508.  In  most  conditional  expressions  the  subjunctive 
mood  should  follow  the  conjunction.  All  the  following  ex- 
pressions are  conditional. 

1.  Except  I  be  by  Silvia  in  the  night, 
There  is  no  music  in  the  nightingale. 

SHAKSPEAEB. 

2.  Let  us  go  and  sacrifice  to  the  Lord  our  God,  lest  he  fall  upon 
•with  pestilence. — Old  Testament. 

3. Revenge  back  on  itself  recoils. 

Let  it    I  reck  not,  so  it  light  well  aimed. 

J.  MILTON. 
4.  If  this  be  the  case. 

5.  Although  my  house  be  not  so  with  God. — Old  Testament. 

6.  He  shall  not  eat  of  the  holy  thing  unless  he  wash  his  flesh  with 
water.— Old  Testament. 


Expressions  like  except  and  unless  are  equally  condi- 
tional with  words  like  if  and provided  that,  since  they  are 
equivalent  to  if — not. 

Expressions  like  though  and  although  are  peculiar. 
They  join  propositions,  of  which  the  one  is  a  prima  facie 
reason  against  the  existence  of  the  other  :  and  this  is  the 
conditional  element.  In  the  sentence,  if  the  children  be  so 
badly  brought-up,  they  are  not  to  be  trusted,  the  bad 
bringing-up  is  the  reason  for  their  being  unfit  to  be 
trusted  ;  and,  as  far  as  the  expression  is  concerned,  is  ad- 
mitted to  be  so.  The  only  uncertainty  lies  in  the  question 
as  to.  the  degree  of  the  badness  of  the  education.  The  in- 
ference from  it  is  unequivocal. 

*  Notwithstanding  the  extent  to  which  a  relative  may  take  the 
appearance  of  a  conjunction,  there  is  always  one  unequivocal  method  of 
deciding  its  true  nature.  The  relative  is  always  a  part  of  the  second  pro- 
position. A  conjunction  is  no  part  of  either. 

17 


362  ON   CONJUNCTIONS. 

But  if,  instead  of  saying  if,  we  say  although,  and  omit 
the  word  not,  so  that  the  sentence  run  although  the  chil- 
dren be  so  badly  brought-up  they  are  to  be  trusted,  we  do 
two  things :  we  indicate  the  general  relation  of  cause  and 
effect  that  exists  between  bad  bringing-up  and  unfitness 
for  being  trusted,  but  we  also,  at  the  same  time,  take  an 
exception  to  it  in  the  particular  instance  before  us. 
These  remarks  have  been  made  for  the  sake  of  showing 
the  extent  to  which  words  like  though,  &c.,  are  condi- 
tional. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  conjunctions, 
like  the  ones  lately  quoted,  do  not  govern  subjunctive 
moods  because  they  are  conditional,  but  because,  in  the 
particular  condition  which  they  accompany,  there  is  an 
element  of  uncertainty. 

§  509.  This  introduces  a  fresh  question.  Conditional 
conjunctions  are  of  two  sorts  : — 

1.  Those  which  express  a  condition  as  an  actual  fact, 
and  one  admitted  as  such  by  the  speaker. 

2.  Those  which  express  a  condition  as  a  possible  fact, 
and  one  which  the  speaker  either  does  not  admit,  or  admits 

jonly  in  a  qualified  manner. 

Since  the  children  are  so  badly  brought-up,  &c. — This 
is  an  instance  of  the  first  construction.  The  speaker 
admits  as  an  actual  fact  the  bad  bringing-up  of  the 
children. 

If  the  children  be  so  badly  brought-up,  &c. — This  is 
an  instance  of  the  second  construction.  The  speaker 
admits  as  a  possible  (perhaps,  as  a  probable)  fact  the  bad 
bringing-up  of  the  children:  but  he  does  not  adopt  it  as 
an  indubitable  one. 

§  510.  Now,  if  every  conjunction  had  a  fixed  unvari- 
able  meaning,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  determining 
whether  a  condition  was  absolute,  and  beyond  doubt,  or 


ON  CONJUNCTIONS.  363 

possible,    and  liable    to    doubt.      But   such  is   not   the 
case. 

Although  may  precede  a  proposition  which  is  admitted 
as  well  as  one  which  is  doubted. 

a.  Although  the  children  are,  <fec. 

b.  Although  the  children  be,  <fec. 

If,  too,  may  precede  propositions  wherein  there  is  no 
doubt  whatever  implied :  in  other  words  it  may  be  used 
instead  of  since. 

In  some  languages  this  interchange  goes  farther  than 
in  others  ;  in  the  Greek,  for  instance,  such  is  the  case  with 
et,  to  a  very  great  extent  indeed. 

Hence  we  must  look  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence 
in  general,  rather  than  to  the  particular  conjunction 
used. 

It  is  a  philological  fact  that  if  may  stand  instead  of 
since. 

It  is  also  a  philological  fact  that  when  it  does  so  it 
should  be  followed  by  the  indicative  mood. 

This  is  written  in  the  way  of  illustration.  What 
applies  to  if  applies  to  other  conjunctions  as  well. 

§  511.  As  a  point  of  practice,  the  following  method  of 
determining  the  amount  of  doubt  expressed  in  a  condi- 
tional proposition  is  useful : — 

Insert,  immediately  after  the  conjunction,  one  of  the 
two  following  phrases, — (1.)  as  is  the  case  ;  (2.)  as  may 
or  may  not  be  the  case.  By  ascertaining  which  of  these 
two  supplements  expresses  the  meaning  of  the  speaker, 
we  ascertain  the  mood  of  the  verb  which  follows. 

When  the  first  formula  is  the  one  required,  there  is  no 
element  of  doubt,  and  the  verb  should  be  in  the  indica- 
tive mood.  If  (as  is  the  case),  he  is  gone,  I  must  follow 
him. 


364  ON  CONJUNCTIONS. 

When  the  second  formula  is  the  one  required,  there  is 
an  element  of  doubt,  and  the  verb  should  be  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood.  If  (as  may  or  may  not  be  the  case)  he 
be  gone,  1  must  follow  him. 

§  512.  The  use  of  the  word  that  in  expressions  like  / 
eat  that  I  may  live,  &c.,  is  a  modification  of  the  subjunc- 
tive construction,  that  is  conveniently  called  potential. 
It  denotes  that  one  act  is  done  for  the  sake  of  supplying 
the  power  or  opportunity  for  the  performance  of  another. 

The  most  important  point  connected  with  the  powers 
of  that  is  the  so-called  succession  of  tenses. 

§  513.  The  succession  of  tenses. — Whenever  the  con- 
junction that  expresses  intention,  and  consequently  con- 
nects two  verbs,  the  second  of  which  takes  place  after  the 
first,  the  verbs  in  question  must  be  in  the  same  tense. 

I  do  this  that  I  may  gain  by  it. 
I  did  this  that  I  might  gain  by  it. 

In  the  Greek  language  this  is  expressed  by  a  differ- 
ence of  mood ;  the  subjunctive  being  the  construction 
equivalent  to  may  the  optative  to  might.  The  Latin 
idiom  coincides  with  the  English. 

A  little  consideration  will  show  that  this  rule  is  abso- 
lute. For  a  man  to  be  doing  one  action  (in  present  time) 
in  order  that  some  other  action  may  follow  it  (in  past 
time)  is  to  reverse  the  order  of  cause  and  effect.  To  do 
anything  in  A.  D.  1851,  that  something  may  result  from  it 
in  1850  is  a  contradiction  ;  and  so  it  is  to  say  /  do  this 
that  /  might  gain  by  it. 

The  reasons  against  the  converse  construction  are 
nearly,  if  not  equally  cogent.  To  have  done  anything  at 
any  previous  time  in  order  that  a  present  effect  may  fol- 
low, is,  ipso  facto,  to  convert  a  past  act  into  a  present  one, 
or,  to  speak  in  the  language  of  the  grammarian,  to  convert 


ON  CONJUNCTIONS.  365 

an  aorist  into  a  perfect.  To  say  /  did  this  that  /  may 
gain  by  it,  is  to  make,  by  the  very  effect  of  the  expres- 
sion, either  may  equivalent  to  might,  or  did  equivalent  to 
have  done. 

/did  this  that  /might  gain. 

1  have  done  this  that  /  may  gain. 

§  514.  Disjunctives. — Disjunctives  (or,  nor)  are  of  two 
sorts,  real  and  nominal. 

A  king  or  queen  always  rules  in  England.  Here  the 
disjunction  is  real ;  king  or  queen  being  different  names 
for  different  objects.  In  all  real  disjunctions  the  inference 
is,  that  if  one  out  of  two  (or  more)  individuals  (or  classes) 
do  not  perform  a  certain  action,  the  other  does. 

A  sovereign  or  supreme  ruler  always  rules  in  Eng- 
land. Here  the  disjunction  is  nominal ;  sovereign  and 
supreme  governor  being  different  names  for  the  same 
object.  In  all  nominal  disjunctives  the  inference  is,  that 
if  an  agent  (or  agents)  do  not  perform  a  certain  action 
under  one  name,  he  does  (or  they  do)  it  under  another. 

Nominal  disjunctives  are  called  by  Harris  sw&disjunc- 
tives. 

In  the  English  language  there  is  no  separate  word  to 
distinguish  the  nominal  from  the  real  disjunctive.  In 
Latin,  vel  is  considered  by  Harris  to  be  disjunctive,  sive 
subdisjunctive.  As  a  periphrasis,  the  combination  in 
other  words  is  subdisjunctive. 

Both  nominal  and  real  disjunctives  agree  in  this, — 
whatever  may  be  the  number  of  nouns  which  they  connect, 
the  construction  of  the  verb  is  the  same  as  if  there  were 
but  one — Henry,  or  John,  or  Thomas,  walks  (not  walk) ; 
the  sun,  or  solar  luminary,  shines  (not  shine).  The  dis- 
junctive isolates  the  subject,  however  much  it  may  be 
placed  in  juxtaposition  with  other  nouns. 


366         SYNTAX  OF  THE  NEGATIVE. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

THE  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NEGATIVE. 

4 

§  515.  WHEN  the  verb  is  in  the  infinitive  mood,  the 
negative  precedes  it. — Not  to  advance  is  to  retreat. 

When  the  verb  is  not  in  the  infinitive  mood,  the 
negative  follows  it. — He  advanced  not.  I  cannot. 

This  rule  is  absolute.  It  only  seems  to  precede  the 
verb  in  such  expressions  as  /  do  not  advance,  I  cannot 
advance,  I  have  not  advanced,  &c.  However,  the  words 
do,  can,  and  have,  are  no  infinitives  ;  and  it  consequently 
follows  them.  The  word  advance  is  an  infinitive,  and  it 
consequently  precedes  it.  Wallis's  rule  makes  an  equiva- 
lent statement,  although  differently.  "  Adverbium  ne- 
gandi  not  (non)  verbo  postponitur  (nempe  auxiliari 
primo  si  adsit ;  aut  si  non  adsit  auxiliare,  verbo  prin- 
cipali) :  aliis  tamen  orationis  partibus  prsefigi  solet." — P. 
113. 

That  the  negative  is  rarely  used,  except  with  an  aux- 
iliary, in  other  words,  that  the  presence  of  a  negative 
converts  a  simple  form  like  it  burneth  not  into  the  circum- 
locution it  does  not  burn,  is  a  fact  in  the  practice  of  the 
English  language.  The  syntax  is  the  same  in  either  ex- 
pression. 

§  516.  What  may  be  called  the  distribution  of  the 
negative  is  pretty  regular  in  English.  Thus,  when  the 
word  not  comes  between  an  indicative,  imperative,  or 
subjunctive  mood  and  an  infinitive  verb,  it  almost 


SYNTAX   OF   THE   NEGATIVE.  367 

always  is  taken  with  the  word  which  it  follows — I  can  not 
eat  may  mean  either  /  can — not  eat  (i.  e.,  I  can  abstain), 
or  /  can  not — eat  (i.  e.,  I  am  unable  to  eat) ;  but,  as 
stated  above,  it  almost  always  has  the  latter  signification. 
But  not  always.  In  Byron's  "  Deformed  Transformed" 
we  find  the  following  lines  : — 

Clay !  not  dead  but  soulless, 

Though  no  mortal  man  would  choose  thee, 

An  immortal  no  less 

Deigns  not  to  refuse  thee. 

Here  not  to  refuse  =  to  accept ;  and  is  probably  a  Gre- 
cism.      To  not  refuse  would,  perhaps,  be  better. 

The  next  expression  is  still  more  foreign  to  the  English 
idiom : — 

For  not  to  have  been  dipped  in  Lethe's  lake 
Could  save  the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die. 

Here  not  is  to  be  taken  with  could. 

§  517.  In  the  present  English,  two  negatives  make  an 
affirmative.  /  have  not  not  seen  him  =  7  have  seen  him. 
In  Greek  this  was  not  the  case.  Duce  aut  plures  nega- 
tives apud  Grcecos  vehementius  negant  is  a  well  known 
rule.  The  Anglo-Saxon  idiom  differed  from  the  English 
and  coincided  with  the  Greek.  The  French  negative  is 
only  apparently  double ;  words  like  point,  pas,  mean  not 
not,  but  at  all.  Je  ne  parle  pas  =  I  not  speak  at  all,  not 
/  not  speak  no. 

§  518.  Questions  of  appeal. — All  questions  imply 
want  of  information ;  want  of  information  may  then  imply 
doubt ;  doubt,  perplexity ;  and  perplexity  the  absence  of 
an  alternative.  In  this  way,  what  are  called,  by  Mr.  Ar- 
nold,* questions  of  appeal,  are,  practically  speaking,  neg- 

*  "  Latin  Prose  Composition,"  p.  123. 


SYNTAX   OF  THE   ISTEGATIYE. 

atives.  What  should  I  do?  when  asked  in  extreme  per- 
plexity, means  that  nothing  can  well  be  done.  In  the  fol- 
lowing passage  we  have  the  presence  of  a  question  instead 
of  a  negative  : — 

Or  hear'st  them  (cluis,  Lat.)  rather  pure  ethereal  stream, 
Whose  fountain  who  (no  one)  shall  tell  ? 

Paradise  Lost. 


THE  CASE  ABSOLUTE.  369 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

ON   THE    CASE    ABSOLUTE. 

§  519.  BROADLY  speaking,  all  adverbial  constructions 
are  absolute.  The  term,  however,  is  conveniently  limited 
to  a  particular  combination  of  the  noun,  verb,  and  parti- 
ciple. When  two  actions  are  connected  with  each  other, 
either  by  the  fact  of  their  simultaneous  occurrence,  or  as 
cause  and  effect,  they  may  be  expressed  within  the  limits 
of  a  single  proposition,  by  expressing  the  one  by  means  of 
a  verb,  and  the  other  by  means  of  a  noun  and  participle 
agreeing  with  each  other.  The  door  being  open,  the  horse 
was  stolen. 

Considering  the  nature  of  the  connection  between  the 
two  actions,  we  find  good  grounds  for  expecting  a  priori 
that  the  participle  will  be  in  the  instrumental  case,  when 
such  exists  in  the  language  :  and  when  not,  in  some  case 
allied  to  it,  i.  e.,  the  ablative  or  dative. 

In  Latin  the  ablative  is  the  case  that  is  used  absolute- 
ly. Sole  orto,  claruit  dies. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  the  absolute  case  was  the  dative.  This 
is  logical. 

In  the  present  English,  however,  the  nominative  is  the 
absolute  case.  He  made  the  best  proverbs,  him  alone  ex- 
cepted,  is  an  expression  of  Tillotson's.  We  should  now 
write  he  alone  excepted.  The  present  mode  of  expression 


370  THE   CASE  ABSOLUTE. 

is  only  to  be  justified  by  considering  the  nominative  form 
to  be  a  dative  one,  just  as  in  the  expression  you  are  here^ 
the  word  you,  although  an  accusative,  is  considered  as  a 
nominative.  A  real  nominative  absolute  is  as  illogical  as 
a  real  accusative  case  governing  a  verb. 


PART  VI. 

PKOSODY. 

§  520.  THE  word  Prosody  is  derived  from  a  Greek 
word  (prosodia)  signifying  accent.  It  is  used  by  Latin 
and  English  grammarians  in  a  wider  sense,  and  includes 
not  only  the  doctrines  of  accent  and  quantity,  but  also  the 
laws  of  metre  and  versification. 

§  521.  Observe  the  accents  in  the  following  lines : — 

Then  fare  thee  w611,  mine  own  dear  love, 

The  world  hath  now  for  us 
No  greater  grieT,  no  pain  above 

The  pain  of  parting  thus. 

MOORE 

Here  the  syllables  accented  are  the  2nd,  4th,  6th,  8th, 
10th,  12th,  14th,  16th,  18th,  20th,  22nd,  24th,  26th,  28th; 
that  is,  every  other  syllable. — Again, 

At  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  hamlet  is  still, 
And  the  mortals  the  sweets  of  forg&fulness  prove, 

And  when  n6ught  but  the  torrent  is  heard  on  the  hill, 

And  there's  nought  but  the  nightingale's  song  in  the  grove. 

BEAT-TIE. 

Here  the  syllables  accented  are  the  3rd,  6th,  9th,  12th, 
15th,  18th,  21st,  24th,  27th,  30th,  33rd,  36th,  39th,  42nd, 
45th,  48th ;  that  is,  every  third  syllable. 

§  522.  Metre  is  a  general  term  for  the  recurrence 


372  PROSODY. 

within  certain  intervals  of  syllables  similarly  affected. 
The  syllables  that  have  just  been  numbered  are  similarly 
affected,  being  similarly  accented.  Accent  is  not  the  only 
quality  of  a  syllable,  which  by  returning  at  regular  inter- 
vals can  constitute  metre.  It  is  the  one,  however,  upon 
which  English  metre  depends.  English  metre  essentially 
consists  in  the  regular  recurrence  of  syllables  similarly 
accented. 

Abbot. — And  why'  not  live  and  act  with  other  me'n  ? 

Manfred. — Because  my  nature  was  averse  from  life ; 

And  yet  not  cruel,  for  I  would  not  make, 

But  find  a  desolation : — like  the  wind, 

The  red-hot  breath  of  th6  most  lone  simoom, 

Which  dwells  but  in  the  desert,  and  sweeps  o'e> 

The  barren  sands  which  bear  no  shrubs  to  blast, 

And  revels  o'er  their  wild  and  arid  waves, 

And  se6keth  not  so  that  it  is  not  sought, 

But  being  me"t  is  deadly :  such  hath  been 

The  path  of  my'  existence.  BYRON. 

§  523.  Measures. — For  every  accented  syllable  in  the 
following  line,  write  the  letter  o,  and  for  every  unaccented 
one,  the  letter  x,  so  that  a  may  stand  for  an  accent,  x  for 
the  absence  of  one — 

The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  c61d. 

SCOTT. 

or  expressed  symbolically 

xaxaxaxa, 
where  x  coincides  with  the,  a  with  way,  &c. 

§  524.  Determine  the  length  of  the  line  in  question. 
— It  is  plain  that  this  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  We 
may  either  measure  by  the  syllables,  and  say  that  the 
line  consists  of  eight  syllables ;  or  by  the  accents,  and 
say  that  it  consists  of  four  accents.  In  this  latter  case 
we  take  the  accented  syllable  with  its  corresponding 


PROSODY.  373 

unaccented  one,  and,  grouping  the  two  together,  deal  with 
the  pair  at  once.  Now,  a  group  of  syllables  thus  taken 
together  is  called  a  measure.  In  the  line  in  question  the 
way  (x  a)  is  one  measure,  was  long  (x  a}  another,  and 
so  on  throughout ;  the  line  itself  consisting  of  four  mea- 
sures. 

§  525.  Trisyllabic  measures. — The  number  of  mea- 
sures consisting  of  two  syllables,  or  dissyllabic  measures, 
is  necessarily  limited  to  two,  expressed  a  x  and  x  a 
respectively.  But  beyond  these  there  are  in  the  En- 
glish language  measures  of  three  syllables,  or  trisyllabic 
measures.  The  number  of  these  is  necessarily  limited  to 
three. 

The  first  of  these  is  exhibited  in  the  word  merrily 
(a  x  x). 

Merrily,  merrily  shall  I  live  now, 

U'nder  the  blossom  that  hangs  on  the  bough. 

SHAKSPEAEE. 

The  second  is  exhibited  by  the  word  disable 
(x  a  x). 

•    But  vainly  thou  warrest, 

For  this  is  alone  in 
Thy  power  to  declare, 
That  in  the  dim  forest 

Thou  heard'st  a  low  moaning, 
And  saw'st  a  bright  lady  surpassingly  fair. 

COLERIDGE. 

§  526.  The  third  is  exhibited  by  the  word  cavalier 
(xx  a}. 

There's  a  beauty  for  ever  unfadingly  bright, 

Like  the  long  ruddy  lapse  of  a  summer-day's  night 

MOOEE. 

When  grouped  together  according  to  certain  rules, 
measures  form  lines  and  verses;  and  lines  and  verses, 


374  PROSODY. 

regularly  arranged,  constitute  couplets,  triplets,  and 
stanzas,  &c. 

§  527.  The  expression  of  measures,  lines,  &c..  by  such 
symbols  as  a  X,  x  a,  &c.,  is  metrical  notation. 

§  528.  Rhyme. — We  can  have  English  verse  without 
rhyme.  We  cannot  have  English  verse  without  accent. 
Hence  accent  is  an  essential ;  rhyme  an  accessory  to 
metre. 

§  529.  Analysis  of  a  p&ir  of  rhyming  syllables. — 
Let  the  syllables  told  and  bold  be  taken  to  pieces,  and  let 
the  separate  parts  of  each  be  compared.  Viewed  in 
reference  to  metre,  they  consist  of  three  parts  or  ele- 
ments :  1.  the  vowel  (o) ;  2.  the  part  preceding  the  vowel 
(t  and  b  respectively) ;  3.  the  parts  following-  the  vowel 
(Id).  Now  the  vowel  (o)  and  the  parts  following  the 
vowel  (Id)  are  alike  in  both  words  (old) ;  but  the  part  pre- 
ceding the  vowel  is  different  in  the  different  words  (told, 
bold).  This  difference  between  the  parts  preceding  the 
vowels  is  essential ;  since,  if  it  were  not  for  this,  the  two 
words  would  be  identical,  or  rather  there  would  be  but  one 
word  altogether.  This  is  the  case  with  /  and  eye. 
Sound  for  sound  (although  different  in  spelling)  the  two 
words  are  identical,  and,  consequently,  the  rhyme  is 
faulty. 

Again — compared  with  the  words  bold  and  told,  the 
words  teeth  and  breeze  have  two  of  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  constitute  a  rhyme.  The  vowels  are  alike  (ee\ 
whilst  the  parts  preceding  the  vowels  are  different  (br 
and  t) ;  and,  as  far  as  these  two  matters  are  concerned, 
the  rhyme  is  a  good  one,  tee  and  bree.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  there  is  anything  rather  than  a  rhyme ;  since 
the  parts  following  the  vowel  (th  and  ze)  instead  of 
agreeing,  differ.  Breathe  and  beneath  are  in  the  same 


PKOSODY.  375 

predicament,  because  the  th  is  not  sounded  alike  in  the 
two  words. 

Again — the  words  feel  and  mill  constitute  only  a 
false  and  imperfect  rhyme.  Sound  for  sound,  the  let- 
ters /  and  m  (the  parts  preceding  the  vowel)  are  dif- 
ferent. This  is  as  it  should  be.  Also,  sound  for 
sound,  I  and  //  (the  parts  following  the  vowel)  are 
identical ;  and  this  is  as  it  should  be  also  :  but  ee  and  i 
(the  vowels)  are  different,  and  this  difference  spoils  the 
rhyme.  None  and  own  are  in  the  same  predicament; 
since  one  o  is  sounded  as  o  in  note,  and  the  other  as  the  u 
in  but. 

From  what  has  gone  before  we  get  the  notion  of  true 
and  perfect  rhymes  as  opposed  to  false  and  imperfect  ones. 
For  two  (or  more)  words  to  rhyme  to  each  other,  it  is  ne- 
cessary 

a.  That  the  vowel  be  the  same  in  both. 

b.  That  the  parts  following  the  vowel  be  the  same. 

c.  That  the  parts  preceding  the  vowel  be  different. 
Beyond  this  it  is  necessary  that  the  syllables,  to  form 

a  full  and  perfect  rhyme,  should  be  accented  syllables. 
Sky  and  lie  form  good  rhymes,  but  sky  and  merri/y  bad 
ones,  and  merrily  and  silly  worse.  Lines  like  the  second 
and  fourth  of  the  following  stanza  are  slightly  exception- 
able on  this  score :  indeed,  many  readers  sacrifice  the 
accent  in  the  word  merrily  to  the  rhyme,  and  pronounce 
it  merrily '. 

The  witch  she  held  the  hair  in  her  hand, 

The  re"d  flame  blazed  high ; 
And  round  about  the  caldron  stout, 

They  danced  right  merrily'. 

KIRKE  WHITE. 

§  530.  In  matters  of  rhyme  the  letter  h  counts  as 
nothing.  High  and  /,  hair  and  air,  are  imperfect 


376  PKOSODY. 

rhymes,  because  h  (being  no  articulate  sound)  counts  as 
nothing,  and  so  the  parts  before  the  vowel  i  and  a  are  not 
different  (as  they  ought  to  be)  but  identical. 

Whose  generous  children  narrow5*}  not  their  hearts 
With  commerce,  giv'n  alone  to  arms  and  arts. 

BYROX. 

§  531.  "Words  where  the  letters  coincide,  but  the 
sounds  differ,  are  only  rhymes  to  the  eye.  Breathe  and 
beneath  are  both  in  this  predicament ;  so  also  are  cease 
and  ease  (eaze). 

In  the  fat  age  of  pleasure,  wealth,  and  ease, 

Sprang  the  rank  weed,  and  thrived  with  large  increase. 

POPE. 

§  532.  If  the  sounds  coincide,  the  difference  of  the 
letters  is  unimportant. 

Bold  in  the  practice  of  mistaken  rules, 
Prescribe,  apply,  and  call  their  masters  fools. 
They  talk  of  principles,  but  notions  prize, 
And  all  to  one  loved  folly  sacrifice. 

POP*. 

§  533.  Single  rhymes. — An  accented  syllable  stand- 
ing by  itself,  and  coming  under  the  conditions  given  above, 
constitutes  a  single  rhyme. 

'Tis  hard  to  say  if  greater  want  of  skill 
Appear  in  writing  or  in  judging  ill ; 
But  of  the  two,  less  dangerous  is  the  offence 
To  tire  the  patience  than  mislead  the  sense. 
Some  few  in  that,  but  thousands  err  in  this  ; 
Ten  censure  wrong,  for  one  that  writes  amiss. 

POPE. 

§  534.  Double  rhymes. — An  accented  syllable  follow- 
ed by  an  unaccented  one,  and  coming  under  the  conditions 
given  above,  constitutes  a  double  rhyme. 


PROSODY.  377 

The  meeting  points  the  sacred  hair  dissever 
From  her  fair  head  for  ever  and  for  ever. 

POPE. 

Prove  and  explain  a  thing  till  all  men  doubt  it, 
And  write  about  it,  Goddess,  and  about  it. 

POPE. 

§  535.  An  accented  syllable  followed  by  two  unaccent- 
ed ones,  and  coming  under  the  conditions  given  above,  con- 
stitutes a  treble  rhyme. 

Beware  that  its  fatal  ascendancy 

Do  not  tempt  thee  to  mope  and  repine ; 
With  a  humble  and  hopeful  dependency 

Still  await  the  good  pleasure  divine. 
Success  in  a  higher  bedlitiide, 

Is  the  end  of  what's  under  the  Pole ; 
A  philosopher  takes  it  with  gratitude, 

And  believes  it  the  best  on  the  whole. 

BYBON. 

§  536.  Metres  where  there  is  no  rhyme  are  called 
blank  metres. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  Heavenly  Muse  ? 

MILTON. 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained. 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  dew  from  heaven 

Upon  the  place  beneath ;  it  is  twice  bless'd, 

It  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takes ; 

'Tis  mightiest  of  the  mighty,  it  becomes 

The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown. 

His  sceptre  shows  the  force  of  temporal  power, 

The  attribute  of  awe  and  majesty, 

Wherein  doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings : 


378  PROSODY. 

But  mercy  is  above  this  sceptred  sway ; 

It  is  enthroned  in  the  hearts  of  kings : 

It  is  an  attribute  to  God  himself; 

And  earthly  power  dotli  then  show  likest  God's, 

When  mercy  seasons  justice. 

SHAKSPEAEE. 

§  537.  The  last  measure  in  a  line  or  verse  is  indiffer- 
ent as  to  its  length. — By  referring  to  the  section  upon 
single  rhymes,  we  shall  find  that  the  number  of  syllables 
is  just  double  the  number  of  accents  ;  that  is,  to  each 
accented  there  is  one  unaccented  syllable,  and  no  more. 
Hence,  with  five  accents,  there  are  to  each  line  ten  sylla- 
bles. This  is  not  the  case  with  all  verses.  Some  rhymes 
are  double,  and  the  last  accented  syllable  has  two  unac- 
cented ones  to  follow  it.  Hence,  with  five  accents  there 
are  to  each  line  eleven  syllables.  Now  it  is  in  the  last 
measure  that  this  supernumerary  unaccented  syllable  ap- 
pears ;  and  it  is  a  general  rule,  that,  in  the  last  measure 
of  any  verse,  supernumerary  unaccented  syllables  can  be 
admitted  without  destroying  the  original  character  of  the 
measure. 

§  538.  See  the  verses  in  the  section  on  double 
rhymes.  Here  the  original  character  of  the  measure 
is  x  a  throughout,  until  we  get  to  the  words  dissever  and 
for  ever,  and  afterwards  to  men  doubt  it,  and  about  it. 
At  the  first  view  it  seems  proper  to  say  that  in  these 
last-mentioned  cases  x  a  is  converted  into  x  a  x.  A 
different  view,  however,  is  the  more  correct  one.  Dis- 
sever and  for  ever,  are  rather  x  a  with  a  syllable  over. 
This  extra  syllable  may  be  expressed  by  the  sign 
plus  (-+-),  so  that  the  words  in  point  may  be  expressed 
by  x  a  + ,  rather  than  by  x  a  x.  It  is  very  clear  that  a 
measure  whereof  the  last  syllable  is  accented  (that  is, 
measures  like  x  a,  presume,  or  x  a;  a,  cavalier),  can  only 


PROSODY.  379 

vary  from  their  original  character  on  the  side  of  excess ; 
chat  is,  they  can  only  be  altered  by  the  addition  of  fresh 
syllables.  To  subtract  a  syllable  from  such  feet  is  im- 
possible ;  since  it  is  only  the  last  syllable  that  is  capable 
of  being  subtracted.  If  that  last  syllable,  however,  be  the 
accented  syllable  of  the  measure,  the  whole  measure  is 
annihilated.  Nothing  remains  but  the  unaccented  syl- 
lable preceding  ;  and  this,  as  no  measure  can  subsist  with- 
out an  accent,  must  be  counted  as  a  supernumerary  part 
of  the  preceding  measure. 

§  539.  With  the  measures  a  x,  a  x  x,  x  a  x,  the  case 
is  different.  Here  there  is  room  for  syllable  or  syllables 
to  be  subtracted. 

Que<§n  and  huntress,  chaste  and  fair, 

Now  the  sun  is  laid  to  s!6ep, 
Seated  in  thy  silver  chair, 

State  in  wonted  splendour  kee"p. 
He'sperus  invokes  thy  light, 

Goddess,  Exquisitely  bright. 

BEN  JONSON. 

In  all  these  lines  the  last  measure  is  deficient  in  a  syl- 
lable, yet  the  deficiency  is  allowable,  because  each  mea- 
sure is  the  last  one  of  the  line.  The  formula  for  express- 
ing/air, sleep,  chair,  &c.  is  not  a,  but  rather  a  x  followed 
by  the  minus  sign  ( —  ),  or  a  x — . 

A  little  consideration  will  show  that  amongst  the 
English  measures,  x  a  and  x  x  a  naturally  form  single, 
a  x  and  x  a  x  double,  and  a  x  x  treble  rhymes. 

§  540.  The  chief  metres  in  English  are  of  the  formula 
x  a.  It  is  only  a  few  that  are  known  by  fixed  names. 
These  are  as  follows : — 

1.  Gay's  stanza. — Lines  of  three  measures,  x  a,  with 
alternate  rhymes.  The  odd  (i.  e.  the  1st  and  3rd)  rhymes 
double. 


380  PROSODY. 

Twas  when  the  seas  were  roaring 

With  hollow  blasts  of  wiud, 
A  damsel  lay  deploring, 

All  on  a  rock  reclined. 

2.  Common  octosyllabics. — Four  measures,  x  a,  with 
rhyme,  and  (unless  the  rhymes  be  double)  eight  syllables 
(octo  syllabcB}. — Butler's  Hudibras,    Scott's   poems.   The 
Giaour,  and  other  poems  of  Lord  Byron. 

3.  Elegiac  octosyllabics. — Same  as  the  last,  except 
that  the  rhymes  are  regularly  alternate,  and  the  verses 
arranged  in  stanzas. 

And  on  her  lover's  arm  she  leant, 

And  round  her  waist  she  felt  it  fold, 
And  far  across  the  hills  they  went, 

In  that  new  world  which  now  is  old : 
Across  the  hills  and  far  away, 

Beyond  their  utmost  purple  rim, 
And  deep  into  the  dying  day 

The  happy  princess  follow'd  him. 

TENNYSON. 

4.  Octosyllabic  triplets. — Three  rhymes  in  succession. 
Generally  arranged  as  stanzas. 

I  blest  them,  and  they  wander'd  on; 
I  spoke,  but  answer  came  there  none : 
The  dull  and  bitter  voice  was  gona 

TENNYSON. 

5.  Blank  verse. — Pive  measures,  x  a,  without  rhyme, 
Paradise    Lost,    Young's     Night     Thoughts,     Cowper's 
Task. 

6.  Heroic  couplets. — Five  measures,  x  a,  with  pairs  of 
rhymes.     Chaucer,  Denham,  Dryden,  Waller.  Pope,  Gold- 
smith, Cowper,  Byron,  Moore,  Shelley,  &c.     This  is  the 
common  metre   for   narrative,   didactic,    and   descriptive 
poetry. 


PROSODY.  881 

7.  Heroic    triplets. — Five    measures,    x   a.      Three 
rhymes  in  succession.     Arranged  in  stanzas.     This  metre 
is  sometimes  interposed  among  lieroic  couplets. 

8.  Elegiacs. — Five   measures,  x  a;    with   regularly 
alternate  rhymes,  and  arranged  in  stanzas. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herds  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  ploughman  homewards  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  word  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

GRAY. 

9.  Rhymes  royal. — Seven  lines  of  heroics,  with  the 
last  two  rhymes  in  succession,  and  the  first  five  recurring 
at  intervals. 

This  Troilus,  in  gift  of  curtesie, 

With  hauk  on  hond,  and  with  a  huge  rout 
Of  knightes,  rode,  and  did  her  company, 

Passing  all  through  the  valley  far  about ; 

And  further  would  have  ridden  out  of  doubt. 
Full  faine  and  woe  was  him  to  gone  so  sone  ; 
But  turn  he  must,  and  it  was  eke  to  doen. 

CHAUCER. 

This  metre  was  common  with  the  writers  of  the 
earlier  part  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  It  admits  of 
varieties  according  to  the  distribution  of  the  first  five 
rhymes. 

10.  Ottava  rima. — A  metre  with  an  Italian   name, 
and  borrowed  from  Italy,  where  it  is  used  generally  for 
narrative   poetry.      The   Morgante   Maggiore    of    Pulci, 
the  Orlando  Innamorato  of  Bojardo,  the  Orlando  Furioso 
of  AriostOj  the  Grierusalemme  Liberata  of  Tasso,  are  all 
written  in  this  metre.     Besides  this,  the  two  chief  epics 
of    Spain    and    Portugal    respectively    (the    Auraucana 
and   the   Lusiados)   are    thus   composed.       Hence    it   is 
a   form    of    poetry   which    is    Continental    rather    than 


382  PROSODY. 

English,  and  naturalized  rather  than  indigenous.  The 
stanza  consists  of  eight  lines  of  heroics,  the  six  first 
rhyming  alternately,  the  last  two  in  succession. 

Arrived  there,  a  prodigious  noise  he  hears, 

Which  suddenly  along  the  forest  spread ; 
Whereat  from  out  his  quiver  he  prepares 

An  arrow  for  his  bow,  and  lifts  his  head ; 
And,  lo !  a  monstrous  herd  of  swine  appears, 

And  onward  rushes  with  tempestuous  tread, 
And  to  the  fountain's  brink  precisely  pours, 
So  that  the  giant's  join'd  by  all  the  boars. 

Morgante  Maggiore  (Ln.  BYEON'S  Translation) 

11.  Terza  rima. — Like  the  last,   borrowed   both  in 
name   and   nature   from    the   Italian,   and   scarcely    yet 
naturalized  in  England. 

The  Spirit  of  the  fervent  days  of  old, 

When  words  were  things  that  came  to  pass,  and  Thought 

Flash'd  o'er  the  future,  bidding  men  behold 
Their  children's  children's  doom  already  brought 

Forth  from  the  abyss  of  Time  which  is  to  be, 

The  chaos  of  events  where  lie  half-wrought 
Shapes  that  must  undergo  mortality : 

What  the  great  seers  of  Israel  wore  within, 

That  Spirit  was  on  them  and  is  on  me : 
And  if,  Cassandra-like,  amidst  the  din 

Of  conflicts,  none  will  hear,  or  hearing  heed 

This  voice  from  out  the  wilderness,  the  sin 
Be  theirs,  and  my  own  feelings  be  my  meed, 

The  only  guerdon  I  have  ever  known. 

12.  Alexandrines. — Six  measures,  x  a,  generally  (per- 
haps  always)   with   rhyme.      The   name   is    said   to    be 
taken  from  the  fact  that  early  romances  upon  the  deeds 
of    Alexander    of    Macedon,    of   great   popularity,    were 
written  in  this  metre.     One  of  the  longest  poems  in  the 


PKOSODY.  383 

English  language  is  in  the  Alexandrines,  viz.  Drayton's 
Poly-olbion,  quoted  above. 

13.  Spenserian  stanza. — A  stanza  consisting  of  nine 
lines,  the  first  eight  heroics,  the  last  an  Alexandrine. 

It  hath  been  through  all  ages  ever  seen, 

That  with  the  prize  of  arms  and  chivalrie 
The  prize  of  beauty  still  hath  joined  been, 

And  that  for  reason's  special  privitie ; 
For  either  doth  on  other  much  rely. 

For  he  meseems  most  fit  the  fair  to  serve 
That  can  her  best  defend  from  villanie ; 

And  she  most  fit  his  service  doth  deserve, 
That  fairest  is,  and  from  her  faith  will  never  swerve. 

SPENSER. 

Childe  Harold  and  other  important  poems  are  com- 
posed in  the  Spenserian  stanza. 

14.  Service  metre. — Couplets  of  seven  measures,  x  a. 
This    is   the  common  metre  of  the  Psalm  versions.     It 
is  also  called  common  measure,  or  long  measure.     In  this 
metre  there  is  always  a  pause  after  the  fourth  measure, 
and  many  grammarians  consider  that  with  that  pause  the 
line  ends.'     According  to  this  view,  the  service  metre  does 
not  consist  of  two  long  lines  with  seven  measures  each ; 
but  of  four  short  ones,  with  four  and  three  measures  each 
alternately.     The  Psalm  versions  are  printed  so  as  to  ex- 
hibit this  pause  or  break. 

The  Lord  descended  from  above,  |  and  bow'd  the  heavens  most  high, 

And  underneath  his  feet  He  cast  |  the  darkness  of  the  sky. 

On  Cherubs  and  on  Seraphim  |  full  royally  He  rode, 

And  on  the  wings  of  mighty  winds  |  came  flying  all  abroad. 

STERNHOLD  AND  HOPKINS. 

In  this  matter  the  following  distinction  is  convenient. 
When  the  last  syllable  of  the  fourth  measure  (i.  e.  the 
eighth  syllable  in  the  line)  in  the  one  verse  rhymes  with 


384  PROSODY. 

the  corresponding  syllable  in  the  other,  the  long  verse 
should  be  looked  upon  as  broken  up  into  two  short  ones ; 
in  other  words,  the  couplets  should  be  dealt  with  as  a 
stanza.  Where  there  is  no  rhyme  except  at  the  seventh 
measure,  the  verse  should  remain  undivided.  Thus  : 

Turn,  gentle  hermit  of  the  glen,  |  and  guide  thy  lonely  way 
To  where  yon  taper  cheers  the  vale  |  with  hospitable  ray — 

constitute  a  single  couplet  of  two  lines,  the  number  of 
rhymes  being  two.  But, 

Turn,  gentle  hermit  of  the  dale, 

And  guide  thy  lonely  way 
To  where  yon  taper  cheers  the  vale 

With  hospitable  ray— 

(GOLDSMITH) 

constitute  a  stanza  of  four  lines,  the  number  of  rhymes 
being  four. 

15.  Ballad  stanza. — Service  metre  broken  up  in  the 
way  just  indicated.     Goldsmith's  Edwin  and  Angelina, 
&c. 

16.  Poulterer's  measure. — Alexandrines  and  service 
metre   alternately,     Found  in  the   poetry  of  Henry  the 
Eighth's  time. 


PART  VII. 

THE    DIALECTS    OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

§  541.  CERTAIN  parts  of  England  are  named  as  if 
their  population  were  preeminently  Saxon  rather  than 
Angle  ;  viz.,  Wes-sex  ( =  West  Saxons),  J&s-sez  ( =  East 
Saxons),  $u.s-sex  ( =  South  Saxons),  and  Middle-se#, 
(  =  Middle  Saxons). 

Others  are  named  as  if  their  population  were  pre- 
eminently Angle  rather  than  Saxon ;  thus,  the  counties 
of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  once  constituted  the  kingdom  of  the 
East  Angles,  and  even  at  the  present  moment,  are  often 
spoken  of  as  East  Anglia. 

§  542.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  dialects  of  the  English 
language  do  not  coincide  with  the  distribution  of  these 
terms.  That  parts  of  the  Angle  differ  from  parts  of  the 
Saxon  districts  in  respect  to  the  character  of  their  pro- 
vincialisms is  true ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  evident  that 
they  differ  on  that  account. 

Thus,  that  the  dialect  of  Hampshire,  which  was  part 
of  Wes-sex,  should  differ  from  that  of  Norfolk,  which 
was  part  of  East  Anglia,  is  but  natural.  There  is  a 
great  space  of  country  between  them — a  fact  sufficient 
to  account  for  their  respective  characteristics,  without 
assuming  an  original  difference  of  population.  Between 
the  Saxons  of  Es-se.r  and  the  Anglians  of  Suffolk,  no  one 
has  professed  to  find  any  notable  difference. 
18 


386  DIALECTS   OF   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Hence,  no  division  of  the  English  dialects  into  those 
of  Saxon  or  those  of  Angle  origin,  has  been  suc- 
cessful. 

Neither  have  any  peculiarities  in  the  dialect  of  Kent, 
or  the  Isle  of  Wight,  verified  the  notion  of  the  population 
for  those  parts  having  been  originally  Jute. 

Nor  yet  has  any  portion  of  England  been  shown  by  the 
evidence  of  its  dialects,  to  have  been  Frisian. 

§  543.  Yet  the  solution  of  such  problems  is  one  of  the 
great  objects  of  the  study  of  provincial  modes  of  speech. 

§  544.  That  Jute  characteristics  will  be  sought  in  vain 
is  the  inference  from  §§  7 — 13. 

That  differential  points  between  the  Angles  and  Saxons 
will  be  sought  in  vain  is  also  probable. 

On  the  other  hand,  differential  points  between  the 
Frisians  and  Angles  are  likely  to  be  discovered. 

§  545.  The  traces  of  the  Danes,  or  Northmen,  are 
distinct ;  the  following  forms  of  local  names  being 
prim&  facie  evidence  (at  least)  of  Danish  or  Norse 
occupancy. 

a.  The  combination  Sk-,  rather  than  the  sound  of  Sh-, 
in  such  names  as  Skip-ton,  rather  than  Ship-ton. 

b.  The  combination    Ca-,  rather   than    Ch-,   in   such 
names  as  Carl-ton  rather  than  Charl-ton. 

c.  The     termination     -by  ( =  town    habitation,    occu- 
pancy.^} rather  than  -ton,  as  Ash-by.  Demble-6y,  Spills-6y, 
Grims-6y,  &c. 

d.  The  form  Kirk  rather  than  Church. 

e.  The  form  Orm  rather  than  Worm,  as  in  Orms- 
head. 

In  Orms-kirk  and  Kir-by  we  have  a  combination  of 
Danish  characteristics. 

§  546.  In  respect  to  their  distribution,  the  Danish 
forms  are — 


DIALECTS   OF   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  887 

At  their  maximum  on  the  sea-coast  of  Lincolnshire  ; 
i.  e.,  in  the  parts  about  Spills-by. 

Common,  but  less  frequent,  in  Yorkshire,  the  North- 
ern counties  of  England,  the  South-eastern  parts  of  Scot- 
land, Lancashire,  ( Ormskirk,  Horn-6y),  and  parts  of  South 
Wales  (Orras-head,  Ten-fo/). 

In  Orkney,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland,  the 
Norse  had  originally  the  same  influence  that  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  had  in  the  south. — See  the  chapter  of  the  Lowland 
Scotch. 

This  explains  the  peculiar  distribution  of  the  Norse 
forms.  Rare,  or  non-existent,  in  central  and  southern 
England,  they  appear  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  island, 
and  on  its  northern  extremity ;  showing  that  the  stream 
of  the  Norse  population  went  round  the  island  rather  than 
across  it. 

§  547.  Next  to  the  search  after  traces  of  the  original 
differences  in  the  speech  of  the  Continental  invaders  of 
Great  Britain,  the  question  as  to  the  origin  of  the  written 
language  of  England  is  the  most  important. 

Mr.  Guest  has  given  good  reasons  for  believing  it  to 
have  arisen  out  of  a  Mercian,  rather  than  a  West-Saxon 
dialect — although  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  the  West-Saxon 
was  the  most  cultivated  form. 

This  is  confirmed  by  the  present  state  of  the  Mercian 
dialects. 

The  country  about  Huntingdon  and  Stamford  is,  in 
the  mind  of  the  present  writer,  that  part  of  England 
where  provincial  peculiarities  are  at  the  minimum.  This 
may  be  explained  in  various  ways,  of  which  none  is 
preferable  to  the  doctrine,  that  the  dialect  for  those  parts 
represents  the  dialect  out  of  which  the  literary  language 
of  England  became  developed. 

Such  are  the  chief  problems  connected  with  the  study 


388  DIALECTS   OF   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

of  the  provincial  dialects  of  England  ;  the  exhibition  of 
the  methods  applicable  to  their  investigation  not  being 
considered  necessary  in  a  work  like  the  present. 

NOTE. 

That  Saxon  was  the  British  name  of  the  Germanic  invaders  of  Great 
Britain  is  certain. — See  §  45. 

The  reasons  which  induce  me  to  consider  it  as  exclusively  British,  i.  e., 
as  foreign  to  the  Angles,  are  as  follows, — 

a.  No  clear  distinction  has  ever  been  drawn  between,  e.  g.,  an  Angle  of 
Suffolk,  and  a  Saxon  of  Essex. 

b.  The  Romans  who  knew,  for  some  parts  at  least,  every  inch  of  the 
land  occupied  by  the  Saxons  of  Germany,  as  long  as  there  is  reason  for 
believing  that  they  took  their  names  from  German  sources,  never  use  the 
word.     It  is  strange  to  Caesar,  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  Tacitus.     Ptolemy  is  the 
first  who  uses  it 

c.  Ecbert,  who  is  said  to  have  attached  the  name  of  England,  or  Land 
of  Angles,  to  South  Britain,  was,  himself,  no  Angle,  but  a  West-Saxoa* 

*  This  is  worked  out  more  fully  in  the  "  Germany  of  Tacitus,  with 
Ethnological  Notes,"  by  the  present  author. 


QUESTIONS.  389 


QUESTIONS  ON  PARTS  IT.  V.  VI.  AND  VII. 


PART    IV. 

1.  WHAT  is  Johnson's  explanation   of  the  word  Etymology?    Into 
•what   varieties  does  the  study  fall?      What  is  the  difference  between 
Etymology  and  Syntax  ? 

2.  How  far  are  the  following  words  instances  of  gender — boy,  he-goat, 
actress,  which  ?     Analyze  the  forms  what,  her,  its,  vixen,  spinster,  gander, 
drake. 

3.  How  far  is  there  a  dual  number  in  the  Gothic  tongues  ?     What  is 
the  rule  for  forming  such  a  plural  as  stags  from  stag  ?     What  are  the  pe- 
culiarities   in    monarchs,    cargoes,    keys,    pence,  geese,    children,  women, 
houses,  paths,  leaves?    Of  what  number  are  the  words  alms,  physics, 
news,  riches? 

4.  To  what  extent  have  we  in  English  a  dative,  an  accusative,  and 
instrumental  case  ?     Disprove  the  doctrine  that  the  genitive  in  -s  (the 
father's  son)  is  formed  out  of  the  combination  father  his. 

5.  Decline  me,  thee,  and  ye. 

6.  How  far  is  there  a  true  reflective  pronoun  in  English  ? 

7.  What  were  the  original  powers  and  forms  of  she,  her,  it  ?     VVTiat 
case  is  him  ?    What  is  the  power  and  origin  of  the  in  such  expressions  as 
all  the  more  ?    Decline  he  in  Anglo-Saxon.     Investigate  the  forms  these 
and  those,  whose,  what,  whom,  which,  myself,  himself,  herself,  such,  every. 

8.  What  is  the  power  (real  or  supposed)  of  the  -er  in  over,  and  in 
either  ? 

9.  What  words  in  the  present  English  are  explained  by  the  following 
forms — sutiza,  in  Moeso-Gothic,  and  scearpor,  neah,  yldre,  in  Anglo-Saxon  ? 
Explain  the  forms,  better,  worse,  more,  leas. 

10.  Analyze  the  words  former,  next,  upmost,  thirty,  streamlet,  sweet- 
heart, duckling. 

11.  Translate  Ida  wees  Eopping.     Analyze  the  word  Wales. 

12.  Exhibit  the  extent  to  which  the  noun  partakes  of  the  character 


390  QUESTIONS. 

of  the  verb,  and  vice  versa.     "What  were  the  Anglo-Saxon  forma  of,  /  can 
call,  I  begin  to  call  ? 

13.  Investigate  the  forms,  drench,  raise,  use  (the  verb),  clothe. 

14.  Thou  speaJcest.     What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  form  ?      We  loven, 
we  love,  account  for  this. 

15.  Thou  rannest=(tu  cucurristi).     Is  this  an  unexceptionable  form? 
if  not,  why  ? 

16.  What  are  the  moods  in  English?     What  the  tenses?    How  far 
is  the  division  of  verbs  into  weak  and  strong  tenses  natural  ?     Account 
for  the  double  forms  swam  and  swum.     Enumerate  the  other  verbs  in  the 
same  class.     Explain  the  forms  taught,  wrought,  ought,  did,  (from  do=* 
facio),  did  (from  do=valeo),  minded. 

17.  Define  the  terra  irregular,  so  as  to  raise  the  number  of  irregular 
verbs,  in  English,  to  more  than  a  hundred.     Define  the  same  term,  so 
as  to  reduce  them  to  none.     Explain  the  form  could. 

18.  What   is  the  construction  of  meseems  and  methinks?     Illustrate 
the  future  power  of  be.      Werden  in  German  means  become — in  what 
form  does  the  word  appear  in  English  ? 

19.  To  err  is  human, — the  rising  in  the  North.     Explain  these  con- 
structions.    Account  for  the  second  -r  in  forlorn;   and  for  the  y  in  y- 
cleped. 

20.  Explain  the  difference  between  composite  and  de-composite  words, 
true  and  improper  compounds.     Analyze  the  word  nightingale. 

21.  How  far  are  adverbs  inflected?     Distinguish  between  a  prepo- 
sition and  a  conjunction. 

22.  Explain  the  forms  there,  thence,  yonder,  and  anon. 

23.  What  part  of  speech  is  mine  ? 

24.  What  is   the   probable   origin   of  the  -d  in   such   preterites  as 
call-erf. 


PART  V. 


1.  Explain  the  terms  Syntax,  Ellipsis,  Pleonasm,  Zeugma,  Pros   to 
semainomenon,  Apposition,  and  Convertibility,  giving  illustrations  of  each. 

2.  What  is  the  government  of  adjectives  ? 
3  What  is  the  construction  in — 

a.  Rob  me  the  Exchequer. — SHAKSPEARE. 

b.  Mount  ye  on  horseback. 

c.  His  mother. 


QUESTIONS.  391 

d.  If  the  salt  have  lost  his  savour. 

e.  Myself  is  weak. 
/.  This  is  mine. 

4.  "What  are  the   concords   between   the   relative  and   antecedent? 
How  far  is,  whom  do  they  say  that  I  am,  an  exceptionable  expression  ? 

5.  Eteocles  and  Polynices  killed  each  other.     What  is  the  construction 
here  ?     Us  se  battaient,  Vun  Tautre — Us  se  battaient,  les  uns  les  autres. 
Translate  these  two  sentences  into  English,     My  wife  and  little  ones  are 
well.     What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  ones  here?     It  was  those  who 
spoke.     These  was  those  who  spoke.     Why  is  one  of  those  expressions  cor- 
rect, and  the  other  incorrect  ? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between — 

a.  The  secretary  and  treasurer, 

and 
The  secretary  and  the  treasurer  \ 

What  is  that  between — 
The  first  two— 

and 
The  two  first? 

7.  What  is  the  construction  of — 

He  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  righteous  ? 

8.  Whether  do  you  say — It  is  I  your  master  who  command  you,  or 
It  is  I  your  master  who  commands  you  ? 

9.  Barbican  it  hight.     Translate  this  into  Latin. 

10.  Explain  in  full  the  following  constructions — 

a.  I  have  ridden  a  horse. 
6.  I  am  to  blame. 

c.  I  am  beaten. 

d.  A  part  of  the  body. 

e.  All  fled  but  John. 

11.  What  is  meant  by  the  Succession  of  Tenses?    Show  the  logical 
necessity  of  it. 

12.  Or  hear'st  thou  rather  pure  ethereal  stream, 
Whose  fountain  who  can  tell  ? — MILTON. 

Give  the  meaning  of  this  passage,  and  explain  the  figure  of  speech 
exhibited  in  the  words  in  Italics. 

13.  The  door  being  open  the  steed  was  stolen. — In  what  case  is 
door? 


392  QUESTIONS. 

PAKT  VI. 

1.  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold. 
Express  the  metre  of  this  symbolically. 

2.  Define  rhyme. 

3.  Give  instances  of  Service  metre,  Blank  heroics,  Alexandrines. 

PART  VIL 

1.  How  far  do  the  present  dialects  of  England  coincide  with  the 
parts,  that  took  their  names  from  the  Angles  and   the  Saxons  respec- 
tively. 

2.  What  traces  of  Danish  or  Norse  occupancy  do  we  find  in  local 
names  ? 


NOTES. 


1  THE  immediate  authority  for  these  descents,  dates,  and  localities,  is 
Sharon  Turner.     They  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  which  are  noticed  in 
Mr.  Kemble's  Saxons  in  England.     In  the  former  writer,  however,  they 
are  given  as  historical  facts ;  in  the  latter  they  are  subjected  to  criticism, 
and  considered  as  exceptionable. 

2  It  is  from  Beda  that  the  current  opinions  as  to  the  details  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  invasion  are  taken ;  especially  the  threefold  division  into 
Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes.     These  migrations  were  so  large  and  numerous 
that  the  original  country  of  the  Angles  was  left  a  desert.    The  distribution 
of  the   three  divisions  over  the  different  parts  of   England   was  also 
Beda's. 

The  work  of  this  important  writer — the  great  luminary  of  early  Eng- 
land— is  the  Historia  Ecclesiastic  a,  a  title  which  prepares  us  for  a  great 
preponderance  of  the  ecclesiastieal  over  the  secular  history. 

Now  Beda's  date  was  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century. 

And  his  locality  was  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth,  in  the  county  of 
Durham. 

Both  of  these  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind  when  we  consider  the  value 
of  his  authority,  i.  e.,  his  means  of  knowing,  as  determined  by  the  con- 
ditions of  time  and  place. 

Christianity  was  introduced  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  Kent  A.D. 
597.  For  the  times  between  them  and  A.D.  740,  we  have  in  Mr.  Kem- 
ble's Codex  Diplomaticus  eighty-five  charters,  all  in  Latin,  and  most  of 
them  of  uncertain  authenticity.  They  are  chiefly  grants  of  different 
kings  of  Kent,  Wessex,  the  Hwiccas,  Mercia,  and  Northumberland,  a  few 
being  of  bishops. 

3  Gildas  was  a  British  ecclesiastic,  as  Beda  was  an    English   one. 

18* 


394  NOTES. 

His  locality  was  North  "Wales ;  his  time  earlier  than  Beda's  by  perhaps 
one  hundred  years. 

He  states  that  he  was  born  the  year  of  the  pugna  Badonica,  currently 
called  the  Battle  of  Bath, 

Now  a  chronological  table  called  Annales  Cambrenses,  places  that 
event  within  one  hundred  years  of  the  supposed  landing  of  Hengist. 

But  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  this  to  be  a  cotemporary  entiy. 
Hence,  all  that  can  be  safely  said  of  Gildas  is  that  he  was  about  as  far 
removed  from  the  seat  of  the  Germanic  invasions,  in  locality,  as  Beda, 
whilst  in  point  of  time  he  was  nearer. 

As  a  writer  he  is  far  inferior,  being  pre-eminently  verbose,  vague, 
and  indefinite. 

Gildas,  as  far  as  he  states  facts  at  all,  gives  the  British  account  of 
the  conquest 

No  other  documents  have  come  down  to  our  time. 

Beda's  own  authorities — as  we  learn  from  his  introduction — were 
certain  of  the  most  learned  bishops  and  abbots  of  his  cotemporaries,  of 
whom  he  sought  special  information  as  to  the  antiquities  of  their  own 
establishments.  Of  cotemporary  writers,  in  the  way  of  authority,  there 
is  no  mention. 

For  the  times  between  the  "accredited  date  of  Hengist  and  Horsa's 
landing  (A.D,  449)  and  A.D.  597  (a  period  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years)  the  only  authorities  are  a  few  quotations  from  Solinus,  Gildas,  and 
a  Legendary  Life  of  St.  Germanus." — Saxons  in  Engl.  i.  27. 

4  This  account  is  from  Jornandes,  who  is  generally  considered  as 
the  chief  repertory  of  the  traditions  respecting  the  Gothic  populationa 
He  lived  about  A.D.  530.  The  Gepidae  were  said  to  be  the  laggards  of 
the  migration,  and  the  vessel  which  carried  them  to  have  been  left  be- 
hind :  and  as  gepanta  in  their  language  meant  slow,  their  name  is  taken 
therefrom. 

6  "Widukind  was  a  monk  of  Corvey  in  Flanders,  who  wrote  the  Ec- 
clesiastical History  of  his  monastery. 

6  Geoffry  of  Monmouth,  like  Gildas,  is  a  British  authority.     His  date 
was  the  reign  of  Henry  II.     The  Welsh  traditions  form  the  staple  of 
Geoffry's  work,  for  which  it  is  the  great  repertory. 

7  The  date  of  this  was  the  reign  of  Marcus  Antoninus.     Its  place, 
the  Danubian  provinces  of  Rhaetia,  and  Pannonia.     It  was  carried  on  by 
the  Germans  of  the  frontier  or  march — from  whence  the  name — in  al- 
liance with  the  Jazyges,  who  were  undoubtedly  Slavonic,  and  the-Quadi, 
who  were   probably  so.     Its  details  are  obscure — the  chief   authority 
being  Dio  Caseins. 

8  The  reign  of  Valentinian  was  from  A.D.  365  to  A.D.  375. 


NOTES.  395 

•  The  date  of  this  has  been  variously  placed  in  A.D.  438,  and  between 
A.D.  395  and  A.D  407.  Either  is  earlier  than  A.D.  449. 

10  The  Saxon  Chronicle  consists  of  a  series  of  entries  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  reign  of  King  Stephen,  each  under  its  year :  the  year  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  invasion  being  the  usual  one,  i.e.,  A.D.  449.     The  value 
of  such  a  work  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  chronological  en- 
tries are  cotemporaneous  with  the  events  noticed.     Where  this  is  the 
case,  the  statement  is  of  the  highest  historical  value ;  where,  however, 
it  is  merely  taken  from  some  earlier  authority,  or  from  a  tradition,  it 
loses  the  character  of  a  register,  and  becomes  merely  a  series  of  dates — 
correct  or  incorrect  as  the  case  may  be.     Where  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chron- 
icle really  begins  to  be  a  cotemporaneous  register  is  uncertain — all  that  is 
certain  being  that  it  is  so  for  the  latest,  and  is  not  so  for  earliest  entries. 
The  notices  in  question  come  under  the  former  class.     The  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle  had  been  edited  by  the  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford  (Dr. 
Ingram),  and  analyzed  by  Miss  Gurney. 

11  Asserius  was  a  learned  Welsh  ecclesiastic  who  was  invited  by 
King  Alfred  into  Wessex,  and  employed  by  that  king  as  one  of  his 
associates   and    assistants    in    civilizing    and    instructing    his    subjects. 
Several  works  are  mentioned  as  having  been  written  by  Asserius,  but 
the  only  one  extant  is  his  history  of  King  Alfred,  which  is  a  chron- 
icle of  various  events  between  the  year  of  Alfred's  birth,  A.D.  849,  to 
A.D.  889. 

Asserius  is  supposed  to  have  died  Bishop  of  Sherborne,  A.D.  910. 

13  The  compounds  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  ware=occupants,  inhdbi* 
tants,  are  too  numerous  to  leave  any  doubt  as  to  this,  and  several  other, 
derivations.        Cant-ware*=*Cant-icolc&*=*people     of    Kent:     Hwic-war&=* 
ffviccas~*=the  people  of  parts  of  Worcestershire,*  Glostershire,  and   (to 
judge  from  the  name)  of  War-wickehire  also. 

18  The  Annales  Saxonici,  or  Saxon  Chronicles,  embrace  the  history  of 
Britain,  between  the  landing  of  Caesar  and  the  accession  of  Henry  II. 
They  are  evidently  the  work  of  various  and  successive  writers,  who 
were  Saxon  ecclesiastics.  But  nothing  certain  can  be  affirmed  of  the 
authors  of  their  respective  portions. — See  Note  10. 

14  See  Note  2. 

16  Adam  of  Bremen  was  a  Minor  Canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Bremen, 
about  the  years  1067 — 1077.  He  travelled  in  Denmark,  and  was  in 
great  favour  with  King  Sweyn  of  that  country.  He  wrote  an  Ecclesias- 
tical History  of  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  the  North,  to  which  he 
appended  a  description  of  the  geography,  population,  and  archaeology  of 
Denmark  and  the  neighbouring  countries. 

*  Preserved  in  the  name  of  the  town  Wick-war. 


396  NOTES. 

18  Ethelward  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  nobleman,  who  wrote  a  chronicle 
of  events  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  death  of  King  Edgar, 
A.D.  875. 

17  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  Frisian  of  Gysbert  Japicx,  in 
metre.     It  is  part  of  a  rustic  song,  supposed  to  be  sung  by  a  peasant  on 
his  return  from  a  wedding  feast.     Date  about  A.D.  1650. 

"  Swiet>  ja  swiet,  is't  oer  'e  miete, 
'T  boaskiere  foar  6  jonge  lie, 
Kreftich  swiet  is't,  sizz  ik  jiette, 
As  it  giet  mei  alders  rie. 
Mai  oars  tiget  'et  to  'n  pleach, 
As  ik  6an  myn  geafeunt  Beach." 

Translation  of  the  same  from  Bosworth's  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary, 
p.  Ixxiii. 

"Sweet,  yes,  sweet  is  over  (beyond]  measure, 
The  marrying  for  the  young  lede  (people); 
Most  sweet  is  it,  I  say  yet  (once  more), 
When  (as)  it  goes  with  the  rede  (counsel)  of  the  elders. 
But  otherwise  it  tends  to  a  plague, 
As  I  saw  on  (by  the  example  of)  my  village  fellow." 

18  Of  the  early  constitution   of  states  of   East  Friesland,  we   have 
a  remarkable  illustration  in  the  old   Frisian  Laws.     These  are    in  the 
native    Frisian   tongue,    and,    except    that    they   represent    republican 
rather  than  monarchical  institutions,  are   similar   in  form,  in  spirit,  to 
the  Saxon. 

19  The  great  blow  against   the  sovereignty  of   Rome,  and  the  one 
which  probably  prevented  Germany  from  becoming  a  Roman  province, 
was  struck  by  the  Cheruscan  Armmius  against  Quintilius  Varus,  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.     The  date  of  the  organized  insurrection  of  Arrninius 
was  A.D.   9 ;    the  place,   the   neighbourhood  of  Herford,  or   Engern,   in 
"Westphalia.     Drawn   into   an   inpracticable  part   of   the   country,   the 
troops  of  Varus  were  suddenly  attacked  and  cut  to  pieces — consisting  of 
more  than  three  legions.     "  Xever  was  victory  more  decisive,  never  was 
the  liberation  of  an  oppressed  people  more  instantaneous  and  complete. 
Throughout  Germany  the  Roman  garrisons  were  assailed  and  cut  off; 
and,  within  a  few  weeks  after  Varus  had  fallen,  the  German  soil  was 
freed  from  the  foot  of  an  invader. 

"  Had  Arminius  been  supine  or  unsuccessful,  our  Germanic  ancestors 
would  have  been  enslaved  or  exterminated  in  their  original  seats  along 
the  Eyder  and  the  Elbe.  This  island  would  never  have  borne  the  name  of 


NOTES.  597 

England,  and  we,  this  great  English  nation,  whose  race  and  language  are 
now  overrunning  the  earth,  from  one  end  of  it  to  the  other,  would  have 
been  utterly  cut  off  from  existence."  * 

20  Heliand  is  the  gerund  from  helian=heal,  and  means  the  Healer  or 
Saviour.  It  is  the  name  of  an  old  Saxon  poem,  in  alliterative  metre,  of 
the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  in  the  dialect  supposed  to  have  belonged 
to  the  parts  about  Essen,  Cleves,  and  Munster  in  Westphalia.  It  is  a 
sort  of  Gospel  Harmony,  or  Life  of  Christ,  taken  from  the  Gospels.  It 
has  been  edited  by  Schmeller. 

31  Hildubrand  and  Hathubrant,  father  and  son,  are  two  legendary 
heroes  belonging  to  that  cycle  of  German  fiction  of  which  Theodoric  of 
Verona  is  the  centre.  A  fragment  containing  an  account  of  their  hostile 
meeting,  being  mutually  unknown,  in  alliterative  metre,  represents  the 
fictional  poetry  of  the  old  Saxons  in  the  same  way  (though  not  to  the 
same  extent)  that  the  Heliand  represents  their  sacred  poetry.  The 
"Hildubrand  and  Hathubrant"  have  been  edited  by  Grimm. 

22  In  a  language  which  for  a  long  time  was  considered  to  be  the 
Dutch  of  Holland  in  its  oldest  known  form,  there  is  an  imperfect  transla- 
tion of  the  Psalms ;  referred  by  the  best  writers  on  the  subject  to  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  thence  called  the  Carolinian  Psalms.  The 
best  text  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  a  Dutch  periodical,  the  Taalkundig 
Magazijn. 

28  Beowulf  is  by  far  the  most  considerable  poem,  not  only  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  but  in  any  old  Gothic  tongue.  It  has  been  admirably  edited  and 
translated  by  Mr.  Kemble.  The  subject  is  the  account  of  Beowulf,  an 
Angle  hero —  Angle  but  not  English,  as  the  scene  of  the  poem  is  on  the 
Continent.  In  its  present  form  it  shows  traces  of  the  revision  of  some 
Christian  writer :  the  basis,  however,  of  its  subject,  and  the  manners  it  * 
describes,  are  essentially  Pagan.  The  most  remarkable  feature  in  the 
poem  is  the  fact  that  no  allusion  is  made  to  England — so  that,  Anglo- 
Saxon  as  the  work  is — it  belongs  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  Germany  before 
they  became  English. 

24  A  Gospel  Harmony  translated  from  the  one  of  Tatian,  exists  in  a 
dialect  too  little  purely  High  German,  to  pass  absolutely  as  such,  yet  less 
Low  German  than  the  Dutch  of  Holland.  This  belongs  to  the  Middle 
Rhine,  and  is  called  Frank. 

26  The  Alemannic  is  the  German  of  the  Upper  Rhine ;  the  dialect 
out  of  which  the  Bavarian  and  Swiss  grew.  Its  chief  specimens  occur 
in — 

*  "The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,"  by  Professor 
Creasy. 


398  NOTES. 

a.  The  Glosses  of  Kero — 
6.   The  Psalms  by  a  monk  named  Notker. 
c.  A  life  of  Anno  of  Cologne. 
</.  The  Song  of  Solomon,  by  "VVilleram. 
e.  Musrpilli,  an  alliterative  poem. 

/.  Krist,  a  Life  of  Christ,  by  Otford,  and  others  less  important 
Most  of  these  (along  with    Tatian),  are    to   be   found    in   Schilter's 
Thesaurus, 


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